TheSinhalese people (Sinhala:සිංහල ජනතාව,romanized: Sinhala Janathāva), also known as theSinhalese orSinhala people, are anIndo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group native to the island ofSri Lanka.[16][17] They are the largest ethnic group in Sri Lanka, constituting about 75% of the Sri Lankan population and number more than 15.2 million.[1][2]
The Sinhalese people speakSinhala, an insularIndo-Aryan language. Sinhalese people are predominantlyTheravadaBuddhists,[18] although a significant minority of Sinhalese follow branches ofChristianity andother religions. Since 1815, Sinhalese people were broadly divided into two subgroups: the up-country Sinhalese of thecentral mountainous regions, and the low-country Sinhalese of the coastal regions. Although both groups speak the same language, they are distinguished as they observe different cultural customs.[19][20]
According to theMahavamsa, aPali chronicle compiled by Buddhist monks of theAnuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese descend from settlers who immigrated to the island circa 543BCE, from the legendary kingdom ofSinhapura led byPrince Vijaya, who mixed with later settlers from thePandya kingdom.[21][22][23][24]Genetic analyses have found genetic affinity between the Sinhalese and South Indian populations, as well as links to other Indian populations such as theMaratha.[25]
Etymology
There are a couple of explanations for the word Sinhala. Sinhala may be considered a combination ofsinha (සිංහ), literally "lion", andla (ල), for "slayer" or "taker", hence Sinhala may mean "lion-slayer".[26] The story of the derivation of Sinhala is told inMahāvaṃsa, and it is believed to be a reference to the founding legend of Sri Lanka; the island was conquered by a descendant ofSinhabahu, who is said to have killed his father, a lion.[26]
According to legend, a princess Suppadevi ofVanga was abducted by a lion, with whom she then bore a daughter calledSinhasivali, and a son,Sinhabahu.[27][28] On the origin of Sinhala,Mahāvaṃsa says: "By whatever means; the monarch Síha Báhu slew the 'Síha' (lion), from that feat his sons and descendants are called 'Síhala' (the lion-slayers)." By this account, Sri Lanka conquered and colonised by his descendants therefore also came to be associated with 'Sinhala'.[26][28]
Another suggestion on the origin of Sinhala proposes that the descendants of Sinhabahu may have been called "Sinha" or lions, either because they were descended from a lion or because they were brave like a lion, but those who conquered and settled in Sri Lanka were called Sinhala simply as a derivative of "Sinha" for the people of the lion. Likewise, the conquered lands may be called 'Sinhalaya' or 'Sinhalé' (up-country Sri Lanka), or 'Sinhala dvipa', and their language 'Sinhala' or Sinhala-Bhasha'.[26]
1 A section of the mural atAjanta in Cave No 17, depicts the 'coming of Sinhala'. The prince (Prince Vijaya) is seen in both of groups of elephants and riders. 2 The consecration of King Sinhala (Prince Vijaya) (Detail from theAjanta Mural of Cave No 17).
2001 Census was only carried out in 18 of the 25 districts. Source:Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka & Statistics[31] Data is based on Sri Lankan Government Census.
The early recorded history of the Sinhalese is chronicled in two documents, theMahavamsa, compiled inPāli around the fourth century CE, and the laterCulavamsa (the first segment probably compiled in the 13th century CE by the Buddhist monk Dhammakitti).[citation needed] These are ancient sources that cover the histories of the powerful ancient Sinhalese kingdoms ofAnuradhapura andPolonnaruwa which lasted for 1500 years. The Mahavamsa describes the existence of fields ofrice andreservoirs, indicating a well-developedagrarian society.[citation needed]
According to the Mahavamsa,Prince Vijaya and his 700 followers leftSuppāraka,[32] landed on the island at a site believed by historians to be in the district ofPuttalam, south of modern-dayMannar, and founded the kingdom of Tambapanni.[33][34] It is recorded that Vijaya made his landing on the day ofBuddha's Parinirvana.[35] Vijaya claimedTambapanni as his capital and soon the whole island went under this name. Tambapanni was originally inhabited and governed byYakkhas, having their capital at Sirīsavatthu and their queenKuveni.[36] According to the Samyutta Commentary, Tambapanni was one hundredleagues in extent.[37]
At the end of his reign, Vijaya, having trouble choosing a successor, sent a letter to the city of his ancestors,Sinhapura, in order to invite his brother Sumitta to take over the throne.[38] However, Vijaya had died before the letter had reached its destination, so the elected minister of the people[39]Upatissa, the Chief government minister and leading chief among the Sinhalese becameregent and acted as regent for a year. After his coronation (in 505 BC), which was held in Tambapanni, he left it, building another cityUpatissa Nuwara, named after himself, 11–13 km (7–8 miles) further north of Tambapanni.[33][34][40] When Vijaya's letter finally arrived, Sumitta had already succeeded his father as king of his country, and so he sent his sonPanduvasdeva to rule Upatissa Nuwara.[38]
In 377 BC, KingPandukabhaya (437–367 BC) moved the capital toAnuradhapura and developed it into a prosperous city.[41][42] Anuradhapura (Anurapura) was named after the minister who first established the village and after a grandfather of Pandukabhaya who lived there. The name was also derived from the city's establishment on theauspicious asterism called Anura.[43] Anuradhapura was the capital of all the monarchs who ruled from the dynasty.[44]
Rulers such asDutthagamani,Valagamba, andDhatusena are noted for defeating the South Indians and regaining control of the kingdom. Other rulers who are notable for military achievements includeGajabahu I, who launched an invasion against the invaders, and Sena II, who sent his armies to assist aPandyan prince.
During theMiddle Ages Sri Lanka was well known for its agricultural prosperity under kingParakramabahu inPolonnaruwa during which period the island was famous around the world as the rice mill of the east.[45]
Later in the 13th century the country's administrative provinces were divided into independent kingdoms and chieftaincies:kingdom of Sitawaka,kingdom of Kotte,Jaffna kingdom and theKandyan kingdom.[46] The invasion by the Hindu kingMagha in the 13th century led to migrations by the Buddhists (mostly Sinhalese) to areas not under his control. This migration was followed by a period of conflict among the Sinhalese chiefs who tried to exert political supremacy.Parakramabahu VI, a Sinhalese kinginvaded the Jaffna kingdom and conquered it, bringing the entire country back under the Sinhalese kingdom for 17 years. Trade also increased during this period, as Sri Lanka began to tradecinnamon and a large number of Muslim traders were bought into the island.[47]
In the 15th century aKandyan kingdom formed which divided the Sinhalese politically into low-country and up-country.[47] In this period, the Sinhalese caste structure absorbed recentDravidianHindu immigrants from South India leading to the emergence of three new Sinhalese caste groups – theSalagama, theDurava and theKarava.[48]
Distribution of majority ethnicity by DS Division according 2012 census
Within Sri Lanka the majority of the Sinhalese reside in the South, Central,Sabaragamuwa and Western parts of the country. This coincides with the largest Sinhalese populations areas in Sri Lanka. Cities with more than 90% Sinhalese population includeHambantota,Galle,Gampaha,Kurunegala,Monaragala,Anuradhapura andPolonnaruwa.[50]
Sinhalese people have emigrated out to many countries for a variety of reasons. The larger diaspora communities are situated in the United Kingdom, Australia, United States and Canada among others. In addition to this there are many Sinhalese, who reside in the Middle East, Southeast Asia and Europe, temporarily in connection with employment and/or education. They are often employed as guest workers in the Middle East and professionals in the other regions.
The largest population centres of the Sinhalese diaspora are mainly situated in Europe, North America and Australia. The city ofMelbourne contains just under half of theSri Lankan Australians. The 2011 census recorded 86,412 Sri Lanka born in Australia. There are 73,849 Australians (0.4 of the population) who reported having Sinhalese ancestry in 2006. Sinhala was also reported to be the 29th-fastest-growing language in Australia (ranking aboveSomali but behindHindi andBelarusian). Sinhalese Australians have an exceptionally low rate of return migration to Sri Lanka. In the2011 Canadian Census, 7,220 people identified themselves as ofSinhalese ancestry, out of 139,415 Sri Lankans.[51] There are a small number ofSinhalese people in India, scattered around the country, but mainly living in and around thenorthern andsouthern regions.Sri Lankan New Zealanders comprised 3% of the Asian population of New Zealand in 2001.[52] The numbers arriving continued to increase, and at the 2018 census there were over 16,000 Sri Lankans living in New Zealand[53] among those 9,171 were Sinhalese.[54]
In the U.S., theSinhalese number about 12,000 people. TheNew York City Metropolitan Area contains the largest Sri Lankan community in the United States, receiving the highest legal permanent resident Sri Lankan immigrant population,[55] followed byCentral New Jersey and theLos Angeles metropolitan area. ManySinhalese have migrated to Italy since the 1970s. Italy was attractive to the Sinhalese due to perceived easier employment opportunities and entry, compared to other European countries. It is estimated that there are 30,000–33,000 Sinhalese in Italy. The major Sinhalese communities in Italy are located inLombardia (In the districts Loreto and Lazzaretto),Milan,Lazio,Rome,Naples, andSouthern Italy (ParticularlyPalermo,Messina andCatania). Many countries census list Sri Lankan, which also includes Sri Lankan Tamils, so the numbers of just Sinhalese are not as accurate when the census states Sri Lankan and not Sinhalese. ThoughSinhalese people in particular and Sri Lankans in general have migrated to the UK over the centuries beginning from the colonial times, the number of Sinhalese people in the UK cannot be estimated accurately due to inadequacies of census in the UK. The UK government does not record statistics on the basis of language or ethnicity and all Sri Lankans are classified into one group asAsian British or Asian Other.[56]
The word Sinhala in Yasarath font.An ola leaf manuscript written in Sinhala.
Sinhalese people speakSinhala, also known as "Helabasa"; this language has two varieties, spoken and written. Sinhala is anIndo-Aryan language within the broader group ofIndo-European languages.[18] The early form of the language was brought to Sri Lanka by the ancestors of the Sinhalese people from northern India who settled on the island in the sixth century BCE.[57][58] Sinhala developed in a way different from the other Indo-Aryan languages because of the geographic separation from its Indo-Aryan sister languages. It was influenced by many languages, prominentlyPali, the sacred language of Southern Buddhism, Telugu andSanskrit. Many early texts in the language such as theHela Atuwa were lost after their translation intoPali. Other significant Sinhala texts includeAmāvatura,Kavu Silumina,Jathaka Potha andSala Liheeniya. Sinhala has also adopted manyloanwords of foreign origin, including from many Indian languages such asTamil and European languages such as Portuguese, Dutch, and English.[59]
Sandesha Kavyas written by Buddhist priests of Sri Lanka are regarded as some of the most sophisticated and versatile works of literature in the world.[60] The Sinhala language was mainly inspired by Sanskrit and Pali, and many words of the Sinhala language derive from these languages. Today some English words too have come in as a result of the British occupation during colonial times, and the exposure to foreign cultures through television and foreign films. Additionally many Dutch and Portuguese words can be seen in the coastal areas. Sinhalese people, depending on where they live in Sri Lanka, may also additionally speak English and orTamil. According to the 2012 Census 23.8% or 3,033,659 Sinhalese people also spoke English and 6.4% or 812,738 Sinhalese people also spoke Tamil.[61] In theNegombo area bilingual fishermen who generally identify themselves as Sinhalese also speak theNegombo Tamil dialect. This dialect has undergone considerable convergence with spokenSinhala.[62]
Folk tales likeMahadana Muttha saha Golayo andKawate Andare continue to entertain children today.Mahadana Muttha tells the tale of a fool cum Pundit who travels around the country with his followers (Golayo) creating mischief through his ignorance.Kawate Andare tells the tale of a witty court jester and his interactions with the royal court and his son.[63]
In the modern period, Sinhala writers such asMartin Wickremasinghe andG. B. Senanayake have drawn widespread acclaim. Other writers of repute include Mahagama Sekera and Madewela S. Ratnayake.Martin Wickramasinghe wrote the immensely popular children's novelMadol Duwa. Munadasa Cumaratunga'sHath Pana is also widely known.[64]
The form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka is known asTheravada (school of elders). The Pali chronicles (e.g., the Mahavansa) claim that the Sinhalese as an ethnic group are destined to preserve and protect Buddhism. In 1988 almost 93% of the Sinhala-speaking population in Sri Lanka were Buddhist.[65] Observations of current religious beliefs and practices demonstrate that the Sinhalese, as a religious community, have a complex worldview as Buddhists. Due to the proximity and on some occasions similarity of certain doctrines, there are many areas where Buddhists and Hindus share religious views and practices. Sinhalese Buddhists have adopted religious elements from Hindu traditions in their religious practices. Some of these practices may relate to ancient indigenous beliefs and traditions on spirits (folk religion), and the worship ofHindu deities. Some of these figures are used inhealing rituals and may be native to the island.[59][66][67] Gods and goddess derived from Hindu deities are worshiped by Sinhalese.Kataragama Deviyo fromKartikeya,Upulvan fromVishnu andAyyanayake fromAiyanar can be named as examples. Though these gods take the same place as their Hindu counterparts in mythology, some of their aspects are different compared to the original gods.[68]
Prominent Sri Lankan anthropologistsGananath Obeyesekere and Kitsiri Malalgoda used the term "Protestant Buddhism" to describe a type of Buddhism that appeared among the Sinhalese in Sri Lanka as a response toProtestant Christianmissionaries and their evangelical activities during the British colonial period. This kind of Buddhism involved emulating the Protestant strategies of organising religious practices. They saw the need to establish Buddhist schools for educating Buddhist youth and organising Buddhists with new organisations such as the Young Men's Buddhist Association, as well as printing pamphlets to encourage people to participate in debates and religious controversies to defend Buddhism.[69]
Christianity
There is a significant SinhaleseChristian community, in the maritime provinces of Sri Lanka.[59] Christianity was brought to the Sinhalese by Portuguese, Dutch, and British missionary groups during their respective periods of rule.[70] Most Sinhalese Christians areRoman Catholic; a minority areProtestant.[65] Their cultural centre isNegombo.
Religion is considered very important among the Sinhalese. According to a 2008Gallup poll, 99% of Sri Lankans considered religion an important aspect of their daily lives.[71]
A 2023genetics study by Singh et al. using higher resolution markers than previous studies found strong affinity between Sri Lankan and South Asian maternal gene pools as well as a high level of West Eurasian maternal ancestry among the Sinhalese. The analyses show strong gene flow between the Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Tamils, and higher gene flow from South Indian as well as some North and Northwest Indian populations. Among the Indian populations, the Sinhalese are closest genetically to certain South Indian subgroups, but the analyses also reveal deeply rooted common genetic ancestry with theMaratha.[25] Some older studies however pointed towards a predominantlyBengali contribution and a minorTamil influence.Gujarati andPunjabi lineages are also visible.[15][72]
In relation to the former, other studies also show the Sinhalese possess some genetic admixture fromSoutheast Asian populations, especially fromAustroasiatic groups.[73][74] CertainY-DNA andmtDNA haplogroups and genetic markers ofimmunoglobulin among the Sinhalese, for example, show Southeast Asian genetic influences many of which are also found among certain Northeast Indian populations to whom the Sinhalese display increased genetic affinities.[75][76][77]
Sinhalese culture is a unique one dating as far back as 2600 years and has been nourished by Theravada Buddhism.[78] Its main domains are sculpture, fine arts, literature, dancing, poetry and a wide variety of folk beliefs and rituals traditionally.[79][80] Ancient Sinhala stone sculpture and inscriptions are known worldwide and is a main foreign attraction in modern tourism.[81] Sigiriya is famous for its frescoes.[81] Folk poems were sung by workers to accompany their work and narrate the story of their lives. Ideally these poems consisted of four lines and, in the composition of these poems, special attention had been paid to the rhyming patterns.[82] Buddhist festivals are dotted by unique music using traditionally Sinhalese instruments.[83] More ancient rituals liketovils (devil exorcism) continue to enthral audiences today and often praised and invoked the good powers of the Buddha and the gods in order to exorcise the demons.[84]
Dress
Sinhalese girl inOsariyaSinhalese girls in traditional Kandyan dancing costume
Traditionally during recreation the Sinhalese wear asarong (sarama in Sinhala).[85] Men may wear a long-sleeved shirt with a sarong. Clothing varies by region for women. Low country Sinhalese women wear a white Long sleeved jacket, and a tight wrap around skirt, which usually is embedded with a floral or pattern design. As for the up country Sinhalese, women wear a similar outfit, but with a puffed up shoulder jacket, and a tucked in frill that lines the top of the skirt (Reda and Hatte in Sinhala). Traditionally, high caste Kandyan women wear a Kandyan stylesari, which is similar to the Maharashtriansari, with the drape but with a frill lining the bottom half and sometimes puffed up sleeves. It is also called anOsariya. The low country high caste women wear a South Indian style saree. Within the more populated areas, Sinhalese men also wear Western-style clothing — wearing suits while the women wear skirts and blouses. For formal and ceremonial occasions women wear the traditionalKandyan (Osariya) style, which consists of a full blouse which covers the midriff completely, and is partially tucked in at the front. However, modern intermingling of styles has led to most wearers baring the midriff. The Kandyan style is considered as the national dress of Sinhalese women. In many occasions and functions, even thesaree plays an important role in women's clothing and has become the de facto clothing for female office workers especially in government sector. An example of its use is the uniform of air hostesses ofSri Lankan Airlines.[59]
Gilded bronze statue of the BodhisattvaTara, from theAnuradhapura period, eighth century. Now housed in the British museum.
Many forms of Sri Lankan arts and crafts take inspiration from the island's long and lastingBuddhist culture which in turn has absorbed and adopted countless regional and local traditions. In most instances Sri Lankan art originates from religious beliefs, and is represented in many forms such aspainting,sculpture, andarchitecture. One of the most notable aspects of Sri Lankan art are caves and temple paintings, such as the frescoes found atSigiriya, and religious paintings found in temples inDambulla andTemple of the Tooth Relic inKandy. Other popular forms of art have been influenced by both natives as well as outside settlers. For example, traditional wooden handicrafts and clay pottery are found around the hill country while Portuguese-inspired lacework and Indonesian-inspiredBatik have become notable. It has many different and beautiful drawings.[citation needed]
Developed upon Indo-Aryan architectural skills in the late sixth century BCE Sinhalese people who lived upon greater kingdoms such as Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa have built so many architectural examples such asRuwanwelisaya,Jetavanaramaya – second tallest brick building in the ancient world afterGreat Pyramid of Giza, andAbayagiriya – third tallest brick building in the ancient world. And also with the ancient hydraulic technology which is also unique to Sinhalese people to build ancient tanks, systematic ponds with fountains moats and Irrigational reservoirs such asParakrama Samudra,Kaudulla andKandalama.Sigiriya which is considered by many as the eighth wonder of the world, it is a combination of natural and man made fortress, which consists so many architectural aspects.[citation needed]
There are extensive folk poems relating to specific jobs of the ancient society. These poems were communal songs which had a rhythm that were sung when performing day-to-day tasks like harvesting and sowing.[86]
Performing arts of the Sinhalese people can be categorised into few groups:
Kandyan dance consist of 18 Wannam (dance routines) featuring behaviours of various animals such as elephant, eagle, cobra, monkey, peacock and rabbit, mainly performing in the annual Perahara pageant inSri Dalada Maligawa Kandy.
Pahatharata dance have a significant dancing style which is used to cure illnesses and spiritual clarification. The main feature of these dances is dancers wear masks representing various gods and demons, and use elements such as fire and water to bless people.
Sabaragamuwa dances have also a significant dancing style, mainly to entertain people.
Folk music and dances differ according to the casts of Sinhalese people and also some times regionally – mainly popular among small children, especially girls. These arts are widely performed during the Sinhalese New Year period.
Angampora is the traditionalmartial art of the Sinhalese people. It combinescombat techniques,self-defence,sport,exercise andmeditation.[96] Key techniques observed inAngampora are:Angam, which incorporates hand-to-hand fighting, andIllangam, which uses indigenous weapons such asVelayudaya, staves, knives and swords. Its most distinct feature is the use ofpressure point attacks to inflict pain or permanently paralyse the opponent. Fighters usually make use of bothstriking andgrappling techniques, and fight until the opponent is caught in a submissionlock that they cannot escape. Usage of weapons is discretionary. Perimeters of fighting are defined in advance, and in some of the cases is a pit.[97][98]Angampora became nearly extinct after the country came underBritish rule in 1815, but survived in a few families until the country regained independence.[99]
The Sinhalese have a long history of literacy and formal learning. Instruction in basic fields like writing and reading byBuddhist Monks pre-date thebirth of Christ. This traditional system followed religious rule and was meant to foster Buddhist understanding. Training of officials in such skills as keeping track of revenue and other records for administrative purposes occurred under this institution.[100]
Technical education such as the building ofreservoirs and canals was passed down from generation to generation through home training and outside craft apprenticeships.[100]
The arrival of thePortuguese andDutch and the subsequent colonisation maintained religion as the centre of education though in certain communities underCatholic andPresbyterian hierarchy. The British in the 1800s initially followed the same course. Following 1870 however they began a campaign for better education facilities in the region. Christian missionary groups were at the forefront of this development contributing to a high literacy among Christians.[100]
By 1901 schools in the South and the North were well tended. The inner regions lagged behind however. Also, English education facilities presented hurdles for the general populace through fees and lack of access.[100]
Medicine
Traditional Sinhalese villages in early days had at least one chief Medical personnel called Weda Mahaththaya (Doctor). These people practice their clinical activities by inheritance. Sinhalese Medicine resembles some of Ayurvedic practices in contrast for some treatments they use Buddhist Chantings (Pirith) in order to strengthen the effectiveness.
According to theMahavamsa, the ancient chronicle,Pandukabhaya of Sri Lanka (437–367 BC) had lying-in-homes and Ayurvedic hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various parts of the country. This is the earliest documentary evidence we have of institutions specifically dedicated to the care of the sick anywhere in the world.[101][102]Mihintale Hospital is the oldest in the world.[103]
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