Air mass forced upwards as it moves over rising terrain
Agravity wave cloud pattern—analogous to a shipwake—in the downwind zone behind theÎle Amsterdam, seen from above over the far southernIndian Ocean. The island generates wave motion in the wind passing over it, creating regularly spaced orographic clouds. The wave crests raise and cool the air to form clouds, while the troughs remain too low for cloud formation. Note that while the wave motion is generated by orographic lift, it is not required. In other words, one cloud often forms at the peak. Seewave cloud.
TheGreat Dividing Range of Eastern and South Eastern Australia which forces cold, moist westerlies up the inland slopes, originating from theSouthern Ocean.
The mountains of westernTasmania which also face a prevailing westerly flow.
The southernAndes, which face a prevailing westerly flow off thePacific Ocean.
The mountains of theChocó Department inColombia, which face a prevailing westerly flow off the Pacific Ocean and are one of the wettest places on Earth.
TheNorthwestern United States andCanada (Oregon,Washington,British Columbia, and SouthernAlaska) see prevailing westerly flow off the northernPacific Ocean. Places on the sea-facing side of coastal mountains see in excess of 140 inches (over 3.5 m) ofprecipitation per year. These locales are on the side of themountains which are in the path ofstorm systems, and therefore receive the moisture which is effectively squeezed from the clouds.
Windy eveningtwilight enhanced by the Sun's angle, can visually mimic atornado resulting from orographic lift
Table Mountain,Cape Town,South Africa. The cold Atlantic air mass flows up over the north western face to 3,500 feet (1,100 m) above sea level and is met by the warm Indian Ocean air mass from the south eastern back side of the mountain forming the famous "Table Cloth".
In Colorado west of Denver maximum snowfall is recorded at relatively low elevations, around Idaho Springs, Genesee, Evergreen, and even as low as Golden and Castle Rock.[2]
The highest precipitation amounts are found slightly upwind from the prevailing winds at the crests of mountain ranges, where they relieve and therefore the upward lifting is greatest. As the air descends the lee side of the mountain, it warms and dries, creating a rain shadow. On the lee side of the mountains, sometimes as little as 15 miles (25 km) away from high precipitation zones, annualprecipitation can be as low as 8 inches (200 mm) per year.[3]
North East England is in the eastern rain shadow of thePennines, due to Britain's prevailing wind coming from the South West. This explains the significant differences between the rainfall between North West and North East England. This impact also occurs to varying degrees to the east of theGrampian Mountains, inHerefordshire and along the England Wales borders and inDevon to the east ofDartmoor.
TheCentral Coast,Cumberland Plain,Illawarra,Monaro and theSouth Coast regions in Southeastern Australia inNew South Wales; as snow-bearing westerlies arriving from the southwest (theGreat Australian Bight) and up the ranges are forced upwind the inland slopes of theGreat Dividing Range, the coastal plain remains dry and is significantly warmer than on the inland slopes at equivalent altitudes. This is evident when comparingBatlow on the windward slopes toCooma on the leeward coastal plain, both around 800 metres (2,600 ft).[4] Conversely, if the polar front or rain event arrives from the south-east (theTasman Sea), then the coastal plain will be on the windward side and the inland slopes are on the leeward side.[5]
Downslope winds occur on the leeward side of mountain barriers when a stable air mass is carried over the mountain by strong winds that increase in strength with height. Moisture is removed and latent heat released as the air mass is orographically lifted. As the air mass descends, it is compression heated. The warmfoehn wind, locally known as theChinook wind,Bergwind orDiablo wind orNor'wester depending on the region, provide examples of this type of wind, and are driven in part by latent heat released by orographic-lifting-induced precipitation.[citation needed]
A similar class of winds, theSirocco, theBora andSanta Ana winds, are examples where orographic lifting has limited effect since there is limited moisture to remove in theSaharan or other air masses; the Sirocco, Bora and Santa Ana are driven primarily by (adiabatic) compression heating.[citation needed]
As air flows over mountain barriers, orographic lift can create a variety of cloud effects.
Orographic fog is formed as the air rises up the slope and will often envelope the summit. When the air is humid, some of the moisture will fall on the windward slope and on the summit of the mountain.
When wind is strong, abanner cloud is formed downwind of the upper slopes of isolated, steep-sided mountains. It is created by the low pressure areas in the downwindvortices drawing in relatively humid air from the lower slopes of the mountain. This reduction in pressure compared to the surrounding air increases condensation, in the same manner as an aircraft'swingtip vortices. The most famous such cloud forms routinely in the lee of theMatterhorn.[3]
The leeward edge of an extensive mass of orographic clouds may be quite distinct. On the leeward side of the mountain, the air flowing downward is known as afoehn wind. Because some of the moisture that has condensed on the top of the mountain has precipitated, the foehn (or föhn) is drier, and the lower moisture content causes the descending air mass to warm up more than it had cooled down during ascent. The distinct cut-off line which forms along and parallel to the ridge line is sometimes known as afoehn wall (orföhn wall). This is because the edge appears stationary and it often appears to have an abrupt wall-like edge.[1]: 676–677 A foehn wall is a common feature along theFront Range of theColoradoRockies.[3]
Arotor cloud is sometimes formed downwind and below the level of the ridge. It has the appearance of the raggedcumulus cloud type but it is caused by a turbulent horizontal vortex, i.e. the air is very rough.
Lenticular clouds are stationary lens-shaped clouds that are formed downwind of mountains bylee waves if the air mass is close to the dew point.[3] They are normally aligned at right-angles to the wind direction and are formed at altitudes up to 12,000 metres (39,370 ft).
Acap cloud is a special form of the lenticular cloud with a base low enough that it forms around and covers the peak, capping it.[3]
Achinook arch cloud is an extensive wave cloud. It has this special name in North America where it is associated with theChinook wind. It forms above the mountain range, usually at the beginning of a chinook wind as a result of orographic lifting over the range. It appears when seen from downwind to form an arch over the mountain range. A layer of clear air separates it from the mountain.[3]
