Organisation of Yugoslav Nationalists Organizacija jugoslavenskih nacionalista Организација jугословенских nационалиста | |
|---|---|
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| Leader |
|
| Founded | 1921 |
| Dissolved | 1929 |
| Headquarters | |
| Newspaper | Pobeda |
| Youth wing | Young Yugoslavia |
| Armed wing | Action Groups |
| Ideology | |
TheOrganisation of Yugoslav Nationalists (Croatian:Organizacija jugoslavenskih nacionalista,Serbian:Организација југословенских националиста),acronymised asORJUNA orOrjuna, was a proto-fascist, anti-communist, terrorist, andYugoslavist nationalist organisation established in 1921 in theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Initially named theYugoslav Progressive Nationalist Youth, it was founded on the initiative of theDemocratic Party for extralegal suppression of political enemies—communists, political parties deemed separatist, proponents of afederal Yugoslavia, and ethnic minorities considered enemies of the state. Those included theCommunist Party of Yugoslavia; theCroatian Peasant Party-dominatedCroatian Bloc, theSlovene People's Party, theDžemijet, and theYugoslav Muslim Organization, as well as minorities suspected to be enemies of the state, namely theHungarians, theVolksdeutsche, and theJews.
When founded, the organisation received political support from the government, especially the Democratic Party faction loyal toSvetozar Pribićević, and funding from the government budget. In 1925, at the peak of its power, ORJUNA had more than 300 local chapters organised in seven districts nationwide. Up to 40,000 members, including 10,000 belonging to itsparamilitary wing, the Action Groups. Organisationally, they resembled theItalian fascistBlackshirts. ORJUNA glorified and used violence to achieve its objectives. The organisation rejected parliamentarism in favour of a dictatorship.
ORJUNA's activities led to the establishment of rival organisations. In 1922, theParty of Rights established theCroatian National Youth (HANAO), and thePeople's Radical Party founded theSerbian National Youth (SRNAO)—the former ostensibly to hold ORJUNA's actions in check, and the latter based on the belief that ORJUNA was inadequate for full realisation of Serbian interests. The situation produced frequent, often armed, clashes with HANAO, SRNAO, and communists.
After Pribićević split from the Democratic Party and moved to the opposition, ORJUNA gradually weakened. The leadership became divided in 1928 whenSplit district leaders and Pribićević accused the ORJUNA organisations in Vojvodina and Serbia of espousing theGreater Serbian agenda. The organisation was disbanded when theroyal dictatorship took power in 1929.
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Following the conclusion ofWorld War I, theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed Yugoslavia) was proclaimed by the Prince RegentAlexander on 1 December 1918. The Prince Regent appointed a government, and theTemporary National Representation was established (largely appointed) as an interim parliament. The Temporary National Representation was meant to enact electoral law for the future Constitutional Assembly.[1]
By the time of theproclamation of Yugoslavia, the state's system of government was largely undecided. Representatives of theKingdom of Serbia and theYugoslav Committee, an ad hoc group claiming it represented theSouth Slavs living inAustria-Hungary, had agreed in the 1917Corfu Declaration that Yugoslavia would be a monarchy with theHouse of Karađorđević as its head. Still, the level of centralisation was left to be decided later on. In November 1918, representatives of the Yugoslav Committee joined by theNational Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs negotiated with the representatives of Serbia on the matter and produced theGeneva Declaration, an agreement that Yugoslavia would be a confederation with limited central government powers. The Serbian government quickly rejected the agreement.[2] The country's constitution was not adopted until June 1921.[3]
At the same time, there was the issue of theAdriatic question, the uncertainty regarding the borders of Yugoslavia. It arose fromItalian claims stemming from the 1915Treaty of London and theFiume question. It was not addressed until the 1920Treaty of Rapallo.[4] Regardless, the treaty's terms were not fulfilled immediately.[5] In that context, theAllied occupation of the eastern Adriatic, including the region ofDalmatia, remained in place until September 1921.[6] The threat ofItalian imperialism led the political elite in Dalmatia to support unconditional unification of Yugoslavia in 1918 and to act against perceived threats to the state.[7] In particular, this was the result of a negative view of the territorial concessions under the Treaty of Rapallo and apparent Italian reluctance to withdraw troops occupying the areas belonging to Yugoslavia under the treaty.[8]
The Organisation of Yugoslav Nationalists (acronymised as ORJUNA) is traced to the pre-First World War Yugoslav Nationalist Youth (JNO), which, in turn, emerged from the Croat-Serb Progressive Youth (HSNO). The HSNO pursued the policy of national unity promoted by theCroat-Serb Coalition (HSK) and promoted the evolution of the South Slavic nation as a means for Croats to overcome their unequal position in Austria-Hungary. A portion of the HSNO, disappointed in the HSK's pro-regime policy, split and formed the JNO, abandoning parliamentary political struggle for revolutionary methods.[9]
The JNO espoused the integralYugoslavist ideology, arguing that the ethnicSerbs,Croats, andSlovenes were the single "three-named people". The concept was based on the cult of the heroic Yugoslav race. The heroic cult was derived from writings of Serbian anthropologistJovan Cvijić who ascribed South SlavicÜbermensch traits (beauty, heroism, democratic spirit, and extreme loyalty to the ideals of national freedom) to the largely Serbian population of theDinaric Alps. Cvijić also associated the population of the Pannonian Plain in northern and eastern Croatia with an anti-democratic, non-national mentality caused by centuries of foreign rule. The JNO was also influenced by Croatian writerMilan Marjanović who portrayedGreater Serbian andGreater Croatian ideas ofVuk Karadžić andAnte Starčević, respectively, as expressions of unity of the South Slavs. In Marjanović's view, the two differed only in Starčević being an advocate of conservative and feudal ideas, while the Karadžić's position was modern and democratic and, therefore, preferable.[9]
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The ORJUNA was established in the city ofSplit on 23 March 1921. It was initially named the Yugoslav Progressive National Youth.[10] The name changed to ORJUNA in May 1922 to reflect an amendment to the organisation's articles, making it no longer an organisation exclusively for youth.[11] The founding assembly, held in theHrvatski sokol [hr] building, elected Marko Nani as the president andEdo Bulat [hr] as the secretary.[12]
The organisation was established on the initiative of theDemocratic Party (DS) and its membership primarily consisted of DS members, especially DS members belonging to the faction loyal principally toSvetozar Pribićević.[10] It was established to carry out extralegal suppression of perceived threats to Yugoslavia, i.e., against communists and separatists.[13] In this context, proponents of integral Yugoslavism considered advocates of afederal system of government separatists.[14] While ORJUNA viewed theCroatian nationalism as a separatist threat, it considered theSerbian nationalism a constructive phenomenon because its programme of bringing all Serbs into a single state "would achieve the unification of the South Slavs".[15]
The organisation gained significance only after the HSS-dominatedCroatian Bloc coalition was formed in January 1922. The coalition issued a memorandum calling for the reform of Yugoslavia into a federation, and Yugoslav authorities interpreted this as a cause for concern. The following month, the organisation's leaders were received byKing Alexander. The central government started funding ORJUNA from the state budget through theNarodna Odbrana organisation andJuraj Demetrović, Croatia's government commissioner.[10]
Like the prewar JNO, ORJUNA adopted integral Yugoslavism as its ideology, closely modelling it after the ideology adopted and promoted by the DS, particularly Pribićević's faction of the Party. Like the DS, ORJUNA supported the idea of the single Yugoslav nation. In addition, ORJUNA modelled its ideology on the example ofItalian fascism.[16] The organisation shared several defining characteristics with the Italian fascism such as authoritarianism, anti-clericalism, anti-Communism, use aggressive propaganda, violence and terror, and absolute unity of the state and the people.[17] To this end, ORJUNA advocated subordinating individuals' political and social liberties to the needs of the state, aiming to achieve national unity throughpaligenetic unitarist revolution and development ofcorporatist communities.[16]
ORJUNA glorified violence,[13] and regardedYoung Bosnia andGavrilo Princip, whoassassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, as their role models.[18] HistorianIvo Banac described ORJUNA as an openly terrorist organisation whose members advocated the abolition of parliamentarism in favour of a dictatorship consisting of a corporatist legislature.[19] Due to the absence of radical measures aimed at changing the social structure, historiansRoger Griffin andStanley G. Payne characterised ORJUNA as aproto-fascist organisation.[20]
The founding assembly elected 11 members of the organisation's action committee.[12] The action committee was restructured as the central committee soon after, and Ivo Petković replaced Nani as the president.[5] In 1922, ORJUNA's central committee was expanded to 30 members.[21] In November 1922, the seven-member Directory was established as the organisation's main executive body. The first president of the Directory was writerMirko Korolija [hr].[22] In 1923, new leadership was elected—Ljubo Leontić [hr] andNiko Bartulović as the president and the vice president of the Directory.[23] Bartulović was deemed the organisation's main ideologue.[24] The Directory was abolished and the General Secretariat created as ORJUNA's new main body in 1927, and Miodrag Dimitrijević was elected the general secretary.[25]
ORJUNA never established its leader as a person of indisputable authority,[24] which is normally a central feature of organisations modelled on fascism, due to the organisation's dependence on the DS and Pribićević.[26] At the time of the organisation's founding, its members saw Pribićević as a possible Yugoslav version of ItalianDuceBenito Mussolini.[19] However, ORJUNA never acknowledged links to Pribićević. Instead, it viewed support from the DS as a form of tactical alliance.[27]
Additional ORJUNA chapters were quickly established with the central government's support. By the end of 1922, there were 250 new chapters. Of that number, 100 were founded in Croatia-Slavonia and Dalmatia, with district-level organisations set up in Split andZagreb.[28] Out of that number, at least 45 were established in Dalmatia alone,[12] and Dalmatia, as the region under threat of Italian irredentism, proved favourable for the development of Yugoslav nationalism.[29] In 1922, local and district-level organisations were established in Serbia, especially in Vojvodina (Yugoslav regions ofBačka,Banat, andBaranya), in Slovenia, and inBosnia and Herzegovina.[28] Split was the seat of the organisation from its founding until 1927, when it was moved to Belgrade.[30]
Early membership largely consisted of former members of the prewar JNO.[5] Early membership recruits were heterogeneous drawing intellectuals from Dalmatia and Slovenia, including people moving to the country from the territories ceded to Italy under the Treaty of Rapallo, andChetnik associations.[17] The membership size is inconsistently reported by various sources. ORJUNA itself claimed it had 100,000 members in 1925, while Leontić later claimed there were 40,000 ORJUNA members at the time. The membership declined after that. At the 1923 congress, it was reported that seven districts included 296 local chapters. The latter figure grew to 302 by 1925.[31]
ORJUNA established special units through its armed wing, known as Action Groups. By 1925, the Action Groups had 10,000 members.[13][a] In terms of their organisation, the Action Groups resembled the Italian fascistBlackshirts.[19] The Action Groups were organised in battalions and companies, carrying light arms.[34] The weapons were provided byWhite Hand secret military organisation.[35] ORJUNA uniforms were black, similar in appearance to the ones used by the Chetnik associations and the Blackshirts.[36] Each unit was commanded by ačelnik (lit. 'head') with a superior districtčelnik and theveliki čelniklit. 'grand head') in overall command.[34] In 1924, ORJUNA appointedKosta Pećanac andIlija Trifunović-Birčanin to the position.[18] Later,Marko Kranjec [sl] took it over.[34] Bulat,Berislav Angjelinović [hr], and Uroš Bijelić gained prominence in ORJUNA through their brutal conduct in the Action Groups.[24]
There were also a high-school section (named Young Yugoslavia)[37] and an economic section of ORJUNA, aimed at ensuring future recruitment and financing of the organisation, respectively.[34] Academic sections were set up at universities, while cultural sections were tasked with organising training courses, concerts, festivities, and similar events. The propaganda section was established to promote ORJUNA among the general public, but it was largely inactive.[38]
ORJUNA was particularly active in threatened regions: Dalmatia, Slovenia, and Vojvodina.[16] One of ORJUNA's first public actions took place following the assassination of theInterior MinisterMilorad Drašković by theCrvena pravda [sr] faction of theCommunist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ) in July 1921. ORJUNA organised public protests in Split where suspected communists were attacked in the streets and their homes ransacked, as well as two days of protests inZagreb where clashes with Croatian Bloc supporters took place.[39] ORJUNA deemed Drašković's assassination ascasus belli, justifying violence against enemies of the state.[40]
In Croatia (including Dalmatia), ORJUNA's activities were primarily aimed against the HSS and independent federalist politiciansAnte Trumbić andMate Drinković. Special units established by ORJUNA carried out armed attacks against the opponents' political rallies.[41] In Dalmatia, ORJUNA organised public protests against the Croatian Bloc.[39] The violence was not always directed at political rallies, and there were instances where the Action Groups targeted Croat-owned shops for staying open during public holidays meant to celebrate the anniversary of the proclamation of Yugoslavia.[42] In October 1922, theParty of Rights established theCroatian National Youth (HANAO) in response to ORJUNA's activities.[b] Physical and armed clashes between the two organisations were frequent, occurring almost daily in Zagreb andPetrovaradin.[45]
ORJUNA claimed at its peak in 1925 that it had 7,600 members in Vojvodina.[46] The provincial organisations appealed to their members more through the struggle against ethnicHungarians and theVolksdeutsche, than through the Yugoslavist ideology.[47] Namely, in the province, ORJUNA targeted Germans, Hungarians, and Hungarian-speakingJews portrayed as foreign elements threatening the state.[21] The three groups dominated the provincial economy and comprised most of the province's population, but[21] ORJUNA did not targetSlovaks because they were deemed loyal to the state and therefore not attacked.[48] German and Hungarian newspaper offices and political rallies were also attacked.[42] When perpetrators of ORJUNA's attacks were arrested, they were commonly released without charges.[49]
ThePeople's Radical Party (NRS) challenged ORJUNA by establishing a competingSerbian National Youth (SRNAO) in 1922.[50] The SRNAO's founders were spurred to action by believing that ORJUNA was not fully achieving Serbian interests.[51] The NRS appealed to ORJUNA membership there by favouring the Greater Serbian agenda instead of Yugoslavism, resulting in ORJUNA losing more than half of its membership in Vojvodina to SRNAO by 1923. The conflict also led to physical violence between the two organisations.[50] Regardless of their clashes, ORJUNA and SRNAO occasionally led joint attacks against the minorities.[52]
In Serbia, ORJUNA was relatively inactive until 1927, except in what was then Southern Serbia (the territory roughly corresponding to the present-day Kosovo and Northern Macedonia), where its activities were aimed at combating theDžemijet party representingAlbanians,Slavic Muslims, andTurks.[21] Just like in Vojvodina, SRNAO challenged ORJUNA in Serbia.[47]
The German-speaking minority was also targeted in Slovenia. The attacks included bombingCillier Zeitung [de] newspaper offices, assaults on social events organised by the minority, and public protests against the Germans involving ransacking German-owned homes.[41] Furthermore, ORJUNA targeted theSlovene People's Party as political enemies of the state andclericalists.[41] In turn, theSlovenec [sl] Catholic political magazine was particularly critical of ORJUNA in Slovenia.[53]
In 1923, a third of the 10,000 Slovenian ORJUNA members were a part of the Action Groups.[34] The Action Groups regularly clashed with KPJ supporters, with the largest such confrontation taking place in late 1923 inTrbovlje, Slovenia, during a miners' strike. ORJUNA organised a competing event, and the armed clash resulted in seven deaths.[54] ORJUNA competed with the KPJ for influence among workers by establishing its trade unions. These efforts were more successful in Dalmatia, Slovenia, and Vojvodina than in other parts of Yugoslavia.[55]
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, ORJUNA targeted the country's leading Slavic Muslim party, theYugoslav Muslim Organization. This included armed clashes with the party's supporters,[42] sometimes resulting in fatalities.[56] There were also violent clashes between ORJUNA and HANAO,[45] as well as with SRNAO. Bosnia and Herzegovina had the poorest organisation of ORJUNA among all provinces or areas of Yugoslavia,[53] except Montenegro, where no ORJUNA organisations existed.[56]
ORJUNA Action Groups carried out attacks inJulian March in Italy and, to a lesser extent, in Austria.[38] There were clashes with Italian and Austrian border patrols.[37] ORJUNA also established clandestine groups inIstria and inCarinthia. With the support of theRoyal Yugoslav Army (but not the government), ORJUNA members were used as counterintelligence assets against Italy and Hungary.[38] The organisation promotedYugoslav irredentism and advocated annexation of parts of territories of all Yugoslavia's neighbouring countries. ORJUNA saw Italy as the main impediment to territorial expansion of Yugoslavia at the expense of all of its neighbours.[57] In Italy, it established links and cooperation with Slovene–Croat resistance organisationTIGR and drew members from TIGR.[58] ORJUNA's activities in Italy and Austria did not impact Yugoslav foreign policy in any significant way.[59]
One of ORJUNA's final large actions took place on 29–31 May 1928, when it organised protests against ratification of theTreaty of Nettuno between Italy and Yugoslavia. The largest protest took place in Belgrade, and additional protests happened simultaneously inŠibenik, Split,Dubrovnik,Ljubljana,Skopje,Sarajevo, and Zagreb. The protesters errectedbarricades and clashed with the police. Two protesters were killed and about 50 injured in Belgrade.[60]
ORJUNA peaked in 1922–1925 when it assumed the role of violent suppression of opponents of the unitarist policy of the government championed by Pribićević.[26] Its power gradually declined afterwards. The decline coincided with Pribićević breaking with the DS (subsequently forming theIndependent Democratic Party) and joining the opposition.[15] His move to the opposition deprived ORJUNA of a major source of its political power.[26]
A division in the leadership occurred in 1928. Pribićević accused ORJUNA organisations in Vojvodina and Serbia of being run by the government. His statement was followed by that of Bulat as the head of the Split district, accusing the Belgrade district of ORJUNA of espousing the Greater Serbian agenda and of having overly close ties to the NRS. In response, the head of the Vojvodina districtDobroslav Jevđević disbanded ORJUNA in Vojvodina the next day. In turn, Dimitrijević expelled both Bulat and Jevđević, but the Split district rejected Dimitrijević's decision. In response, the Ministry of the Interior dissolved all ORJUNA organisations in the Split district. The conflict marked the break-up of the unified organisation. ORJUNA was banned shortly afterwards, along with all other political organisations, upon the institution of theroyal dictatorship in 1929.[61] In its final act, ORJUNA declared its support for the dictatorship, believing it was the fulfilment of its programme of integral Yugoslavism.[30] A portion of former ORJUNA members continued to pursue political activities by joining theYugoslav Action andAssociation of Fighters of Yugoslavia.[62]
In August 1921, five months after ORJUNA's establishment, the organisation began producing its publicationPobeda (lit. 'Victory') in Split.[63] The initiative for its launch came from Angjelinović.[64] The initial issue of the newspaper received congratulatory messages from Speaker of theAssembly of YugoslaviaIvan Ribar, Pribićević, and others, as well as a poem byAleksa Šantić that became the organisation's anthem.[5]Pobeda used combative rhetoric to denounce groups they deemed enemies of the state. Those included communists, clericalists,[c] Croatian Bloc supporters, Trumbić, and HSS leaderStjepan Radić specifically, and Zagreb's Jewish population in general.[66] ORJUNA published several other regional or local newspapers. After 1925, as membership declined, most were affected by a lack of money and ceased publication.[63]
The ORJUNA logo was created byRadovan Tommaseo, an artist from Split, in September 1921. The logo consisted of overlaid black letters J, N, and O set in an octagon with a blue, white, and red triple border.[36]
Because it opposed the parliamentary democracy and advocated for dictatorial rule in the country, the general public largely viewed ORJUNA as a fascist organisation. Its efforts were a failure given the popularity of its nominal enemies—the KPJ and the HSS.[24] The latter became the Croats' dominant political party partly due to its opposition to the integral Yugoslavism. Despite ORJUNA's efforts, Yugoslavism as an idea did not appeal to a broader public, even though the organisation enjoyed significant support in Dalmatia in its early years.[67] There was an attempt at reestablishing ORJUNA following the proclamation of theOctroic Constitution introduced by a royal decree in 1931. The attempt failed due to a lack of interest of the public.[20]
In Croatia, ORJUNA's stated struggle against Croatian separatism was viewed in the context of ORJUNA's reliance on Pribićević and his power base among Serbs outside Serbia, especially theCroatian Serbs. In turn, it contributed to a significant deterioration of the Croat–Serb relations.[68]
During theSecond World War, following the 1941Invasion of Yugoslavia, the largest portion of ORJUNA's prominent members joined theAxis-collaboratingChetniks. That group included Jevđević, Trifunović Birčanin, and Bartulović. Others, like Leontić, joined the KPJ-ledYugoslav Partisans.[20]
In the 1990s, the termorjunaš (lit. 'a member of ORJUNA') was used by Croatianright-wing commentators as a derogatory term to describe theleft-wing and liberal opposition to the rulingCroatian Democratic Union as enemies of the Croatia's statehood. In the process, those commentators argued that the Yugoslavist ideology was a part of the Greater Serbian political project.[69]
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