Its history dates to the 8th century, and Opole is one of the oldest cities in Poland. An important stronghold in Poland, it became a capital of aduchy within medieval Poland in 1172, and in 1217 it was grantedcity rights by DukeCasimir I of Opole,[7] the great-grandson of Polish DukeBolesław III Wrymouth. During theMedieval Period and theRenaissance, the city was known as a centre of commerce; several main trade routes intersected here, which helped to generate steady profits from transit trade. The rapid development of the town was also caused by the establishment of a seat of regency in Opole in 1816. The first railway connection between Opole,Brzeg andWrocław was opened in 1843 and the first manufacturing plants were constructed in 1859, which greatly contributed to the city's regional significance.[8]
The city's extensive heritage entails several cultures of Central Europe, as it was under periods of Polish,Bohemian,Austrian,Prussian, and German rule. Opole formally became part of Poland again in 1945 after the end of World War II. ManyGerman Upper Silesians and Poles of ethnicGerman ancestry still reside in the Opole region; but, following the1945–46 expulsions, in the city of the 21st century, ethnic Germans make up less than 3% of the population.
There are four higher education establishments in the city: theOpole University,Opole University of Technology, a Medical College and the private Higher College of Management and Administration.The National Festival of Polish Song has been held here annually since 1963. Each year new regular events, fairs, shows and competitions take place.[9]
Opole is sometimes referred to as "Polish Venice",[10] because of its picturesque Old Town and severalcanals and bridges connecting parts of the city.
Contemporary model of the early medieval Polish stronghold in OpoleA fragment ofmedieval defensive walls that once surrounded Opole
Opole's history begins in the 8th century. At this time, according to the archeological excavations,[12] the first settlement was founded on the Ostrówek – the northern part of the Pasieka Island in the middle of theOder river. In the early 10th century it developed into one of the main "gords" of theLechitic (Polish)Opolans tribe.
At the end of the centurySilesia became part of Poland and was ruled by thePiast dynasty; the land of the pagan Opolanie was conquered by DukeMieszko I in 992. From the 11th–12th centuries it was also acastellany. After the death of DukeWładysław II the Exile, Silesia was divided in 1163 between two Piast lines – theWrocław line inLower Silesia and the Opole-Racibórz of Upper Silesia. Opole wouldbecome a duchy in 1172 and would share much in common with theDuchy of Racibórz, with which it was often combined. In 1281 Upper Silesia was divided further between the heirs of the dukes. The Duchy of Opole was temporarily reestablished in 1290.
In the early 13th century, DukeCasimir I of Opole decided to move the settlement from the Pasieka Island to the right shore of the Oder river (since the 17th century, the oldstream bed of the Oder, known as the Młynówka). All of the inhabitants had to be moved in order to accommodate the castle that was built in place of the old city.[13] Former inhabitants of Ostrówek, together with German merchants that immigrated from the West, received the first town rights probably as early as around 1217, although this date is disputed.[14] Opole receivedGerman town law in 1254, which was expanded with Neumarkt law in 1327. Opole developed during the rule of dukeBolko I of Opole. The castle was finally completed around this time and new buildings, including thecity walls and the Holy Cross Church, were constructed.
The oldest known view of Opole seen from southeast, circa 1535
Along with most ofSilesia, in 1327 the Duchy of Opole came under the sovereignty of theKingdom of Bohemia, itself part of theHoly Roman Empire. In 1521 the Duchy of Opole inherited the Duchy ofRacibórz (Ratibor), by then also known by its German equivalent – Oppeln. The second castle of Opole was probably founded in the 14th century by dukeVladislaus II, though some sources claim that it was originally a wooden stronghold of Opole'scastellan dating into 12th century.[15]
With the death of KingLudvík II ofBohemia at theBattle of Mohács, Silesia was inherited byFerdinand I, placing Opole under the sovereignty of theHabsburg monarchy ofAustria. The Habsburgs took control of the region in 1532 after the last Piast duke of Opole,Jan II the Good, died. At that time the city was still mainly Polish-speaking (around 63%), with other nationalities represented mainly by Germans, Czechs and Jews.[citation needed] The last two dukes of Opole,Nicholas II and Janusz II the Good, did not master the German language.[16]
Beginning in 1532 the Habsburgs pawned the duchy to different rulers including severalmonarchs of Poland (seeDukes of Opole). After theSwedish invasion of Poland, in 1655 the King of Poland,John II Casimir Vasa, stayed with his entire court in Opole. In Opole in November 1655, theUniversal of Opole (Uniwersał opolski) was issued by the King, calling for Poles to rise against the Swedes, who at that time occupied a large part of Poland.
18th-century view of Opole
With the abdication of KingJohn II Casimir ofPoland as the last Duke of Opole in 1668, the region passed to the direct control of the Habsburgs. At the beginning of the 18th century, the German population of Opole was estimated at 20%.[17]
KingFrederick II of Prussia conquered most of Silesia from Austria in 1740 during theSilesian Wars; Prussian control was confirmed in thePeace of Breslau in 1742. In the 18th century, Opole belonged to the tax inspection region ofPrudnik.[18] Under Prussian rule the ethnic structure of the city began to change. In the early 20th century the number of Polish and bilingual citizens of Opole, according to the official German statistics, varied between 25% and 31%.[19] Nonetheless, Opole remained an important cultural, social and political center for the Poles of Upper Silesia. From 1849 the Polish newspaperGazeta Wiejska dla Górnego Śląska was published in Opole. Polish reporter and opponent ofGermanisationBronisław Koraszewski founded the newspaperGazeta Opolska in 1890 and the People's Bank in Opole (Opolski Bank Ludowy) in 1897.[20] Another Polish newspaper, theNowiny was founded by Franciszek Kurpierz in 1911.
Stamps after the plebiscite in August 1921 featured the German name ofOppeln
After the defeat of Imperial Germany inWorld War I, aplebiscite was held on 20 March 1921 in Oppeln to determine if the city would be in theWeimar Republic or become part of theSecond Polish Republic, which had just regained independence. 20,816 (94.7%) votes were cast for Germany, 1,098 (5.0%) for Poland, and 70 (0.3%) votes were declared invalid. Voter participation was 95.9%. Results of the plebiscite in the Oppeln-Land county were different, with 30% of the population voting for Poland. The local newspaperOppelner Nachrichten was published in Oppeln.
Oppeln was the administrative seat of theProvince of Upper Silesia from 1919–1939. In the years 1928–1931, by the decision of the German regional administration, the Piast Castle was demolished. Thanks to the strong opposition of the local Polish community and protests of theUnion of Poles in Germany, the castle tower was saved from demolition.[21] Nowadays called thePiast Tower it is one of the city's landmarks. In 1929, a Polish theatre fromKatowice came to Opole to perform the operaHalka byStanisław Moniuszko. After the performance, the actors were brutally beaten by a German militia with the silent consent of the German police.[22]
ThePiast Castle, prior to its demolition by the German authorities
Local Polish activists were intensively persecuted from 1937 onwards.[23] The localGestapo terrorized and spied on Polish activities in the German-held part of Upper Silesia, participated in espionage and sabotage in the Polish part of Silesia and prepared border provocations against Poland.[24] There was stronganti-Polishpropaganda in the city and region.[24]
The local Polish newspaperNowiny Codzienne was frequently confiscated from 1937 and its editors were harassed, its work obstructed, its distributors persecuted, and its readers threatened.[25] In 1938–1939, the localGestapo carried outexpulsions of Polish activists from the region, which the local Polish press could still report.[26] On 2 July 1939 a Nazi militia attacked and severely beat Poles going to a Polish service in the Saint Sebastian Church.[27]
Plaque at the main railway station commemorating deportations of Poles from Opole to concentration camps in 1939
On August 31, the day before the Germaninvasion of Poland that beganWorld War II, the Germans began mass arrests of prominent Poles in the city, which were continued in September.[28] Among the arrested Poles were activists, entrepreneurs, journalists, editors, scout leaders, the director of the local Polish bank and the director of the local Polish library.[29] TheNowiny Codzienne newspaper was closed down on September 1, and its editorial team, including editor-in-chief Jan Łangowski, was deported toconcentration camps.[30] In September 1939, local Polish organizations were closed down by the German police andGestapo, and the assets of the local Polish bank were confiscated.[31] On 13 September and 4 October 1939, arrested Poles were deported from the city to concentration camps, men toBuchenwald and women toRavensbrück.[32] Some local Poles avoided arrest by escaping earlier to Poland.[27]
The German10th Army and14th Army attacked Poland from the city, and theEinsatzgruppe I and II followed the armies from Opole to various Polish cities to commitcrimes against the Polish people.[33] After the defeat of Poland, Polish Eastern Upper Silesia was re-annexed to the Province of Upper Silesia and Oppeln lost its status as provincial capital to German-occupiedKatowice (renamedKattowitz).
Polish prisoners from the city co-founded the secret resistance movement in Buchenwald, while Polish escapees from the city participated in thePolish resistance inoccupied Poland.[34] Local members of the Polish resistance were expelled from the city.[35]
The New Synagogue was built in 1893–1897, designed by Felix Henry. During theKristallnacht on 9–10 November 1938 Nazis forced Rabbi Hans Hirschberg to set the building on fire.
Architecture of the Main MarketplacePiast Bridge and Opole Cathedral in the background with its two iconicGothic towers
After the end of the Second World War in 1945, Oppeln was transferred fromGermany toPoland, pursuant to the agreements of thePotsdam Conference, and given its original Slavic name of Opole. Opole became part of theKatowice Voivodeship from 1946–1950, after which it became part of theOpole Voivodeship. Unlike other parts of the so-calledRecovered Territories, Opole and the surrounding region's indigenous population partly remained and was only partlyexpelled as elsewhere. Over 1 million Silesians who considered themselves Poles or were treated as such by the authorities due to their language and customs were allowed to stay after they were verified as Poles in a special verification process. It involved declaringPolish nationality and an oath of allegiance to the Polish nation. Additionally, many Poles displaced from the former PolishKresy annexed by the USSR (for exampleLwów) came to Opole and the surrounding area and settled here after the Second World War.[37]
In later years, however, many Germans (and German Silesians) left forWest Germany to flee the communistEastern Bloc (seeEmigration from Poland to Germany after World War II). Today, Opole, along with the surrounding region, is known as a centre of theGerman minority in Poland that recruits mainly from the descendants of the positively verified autochthons. In the city itself, however, only 2.46% of the inhabitants declared German nationality according to the last national census of 2002.
In the early 20th century the number of Polish and bilingual citizens of Opole, according to the official German statistics, varied from 25 to 31%.[19]
AlongsideGerman andPolish, many citizens of the city before 1945 used a strongly German-influencedSilesian dialect (sometimes calledwasserpolnisch orwasserpolak). Because of this, the post-warPolish state administration after the annexation of Silesia in 1945 did not initiate a generalexpulsion of all former inhabitants of Opole, as was done in Lower Silesia, for instance, where the population almost exclusively spoke the German language. Because they were considered "autochthonous" (Polish), the Wasserpolak-speakers instead received the right to remain in their homeland after declaring themselves as Poles. Some German speakers took advantage of this decision, allowing them to remain in Opole, even when they considered themselves to be of German nationality. The city surroundings currently contain the largest German and Upper Silesian minorities in Poland. However, Opole itself is only 2.46% German.[43] (See alsoGermans of Poland.)
the 14th-centuryHoly Cross Cathedral (Bazylika katedralna Podwyższenia Krzyża Świętego), which contains the Piast Chapel with the tomb ofJan II the Good, the last duke of Opole from the Piast dynasty
Opole is one of the warmest cities in Poland. The national all-time heat record was measured in Prószków, near Opole. The climate isoceanic with sizeablecontinental influences.
Climate data for Opole (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present)
Opole is theOpole Voivodeship's centre for commerce, banking, industrial complexes and other major service sector industries.[58][59][60]
Prior toWorld War II, due to majorlimestone deposits in Opole's vicinity, the city developed as a centre forcement production inGermany, with theCementownia "Odra" being active till this day. TheFrench building materials companyLafarge is also active in the area, having its roofing division, Lafarge Roofing, together with itsGerman subsidiary Schiedel (chimney manufacturing) based in Opole.[61]
Solaris Centre Mall
Other companies in the city include: IT companies: Atmoterm SA,[62] the Germanvalve manufacturer Kludi; the German men's fashion manufacturer Ahlers and theAmerican automotive manufacturer Tower Automative. As is the case with the entireOpole Voivodeship, there is a strong presence offood industry services in the city. The largest companies in the food sector include:Zott, theDutchbaby food and nutrition companyNutricia, part of theDanone food-products corporation.
Furthermore, the city has three major shopping centres. TheSolaris Center, with a total of 86 shops, opened in May 2009 and is located in the centre of Mikołaj Kopernik Square. In the city's suburbs, by Wrocławska Street (ul. Wrocławska) is the location of Karolinka Shopping Centre (Centrum Handlowe Karolinka). The shopping centre, which opened in September 2008, has a total area of 38,000 m2, with a total of 99 stores, including fashion, hardware and electronics stores. To the east of the city, by the National Road 46, is the smallest of the three shopping centres, Turawa Park, with a total of 50 stores. Other shopping centres includeGaleria Opolanin, built between 1974 and 1981 and upon its completion, was the largest shopping centre in Poland.[65]
Odra Opole – football club, playing in thePolish second division. From the 1950s to the 1980s the team competed in the country's top-flight, finishing 3rd in1964.
^G. Staniszewski (red.), B. Szafraniec, U. Zajączkowska, M. Krajewski,Opole: Urząd Miasta Opola, ISBN 978-83-87401-04-7
^"Główny Urząd Statystyczny" [Central Statistical Office] (in Polish). To search: Select "Miejscowości (SIMC)" tab, select "fragment (min. 3 znaki)" (minimum 3 characters), enter town name in the field below, click "WYSZUKAJ" (Search).
^Opole,Słownik geograficzny Królestwa Polskiego i innych krajów słowiańskich, Tom VII, nakł. Filipa Sulimierskiego i Władysława Walewskiego, 1880-1914
^B. Gediga,Początki i rozwój wczesnośredniowiecznego ośrodka miejskiego na Ostrówku w Opolu,Slavia Antiqua t. 16, Wrocław 1970.
^W. Dziewulski, F. Hawranek,Opole - Monografia miasta,Instytut Śląski Opole 1975, p. 57.
^This opinion is shared i.e. by W. Dziewulski, F. Hawranek,Opole - Monografia miasta,Instytut Śląski Opole 1975, p. 57 and G. A. Stenzel,Geschichte Schlesiens, T1. 1, Breslau 1853, p. 41. The opposite opinion is presented i.e. by K. Buczek,Targi i miasta na prawie polskim (okres wczesnośredniowieczny), Wrocław 1964, p. 114.
^W. Dziewulski, F. Hawranek,Opole - Monografia miasta,Instytut Śląski Opole 1975, pp. 58–60.
^abW. Dziewulski, F. Hawranek,Opole - Monografia miasta,Instytut Śląski Opole 1975, p. 263–268".
^T. Hunt Tooley,National Identity and Weimar Germany. Upper Silesia and the Eastern Border, 1918–1922, University of Nebraska Press, 1997, p. 15
^Spotkania z Zabytkami. 6, 2005, p. 21. (in Polish)
^Dorota Simonides, Jan Zaremba,Śląskie miscellanea: literatura-folklor, 2006, p. 82 (in Polish)
^Cygański, Mirosław (1984). "Hitlerowskie prześladowania przywódców i aktywu Związków Polaków w Niemczech w latach 1939-1945".Przegląd Zachodni (in Polish) (4): 24.
^"Miesięczna suma opadu".Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 9 January 2022. Retrieved2 February 2022.
^"Liczba dni z opadem >= 0,1 mm".Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved2 February 2022.
^"Średnia grubość pokrywy śnieżnej".Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved2 February 2022.
^"Średnia suma usłonecznienia (h)".Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived fromthe original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved2 February 2022.
The list includes the 107 urban municipalities governed by acity mayor (prezydent miasta) instead of a town mayor (burmistrz) ·Cities with powiat rights are initalics · Voivodeship cities are inbold
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