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Open education is an internationallearning standards andeducation policyopen standards movement based onopen sourceopenness.
It was created inspired by thehistoriography ofhistory of education educational movements of the twentieth century such aspopular education,community education, andcritical pedagogy, all of which promote the widening participation and inclusiveness in society[1][2][3] based onopen access with the aim ofinformation access tolearning andtraining ininformal andformaleducation systems,[4] mainly throughonline and distance education.
Its main products areopen educational resources (OER),open source softwareeducational technologies (edtech),open science,open researchprojects, andopen educational practices.
In the 1700sJohn Amos Comenius proposed open access to education as one of its core goals.[1]
In the 1960sinstructional designers andeducators faced what was called then a "world-wide crisis in education"[5] as education systems responded slowly to the demand forhigher education, which required new models to meet the needs of a much larger and diversified group oflifelong learners.[1]
In the 1970s these conditions led to the establishment of open and distance education systems globally, which developed many educative innovations likeeducational technologies (EdTech) and the development ofopen universities.[1]
In 1998 thePublic Knowledge Project (PKP) was founded.
In 1999 theConnexions, the firstmassive open online courses (MOOCs), was established atRice University in 1999, which transformed intoOpenStax, and inspired more than 200universities and organisations.
In 2001 theMIT Open CourseWare[6] was founded.
In 2002 theOpen Source Education Foundation (OSEF) was founded to createedtech forchildhood education.[7]
In 2003 theBerlin Declaration on Open Access to Knowledge in the Sciences and Humanities from theOpen Access Movement was signed.
In 2007 theCape Town Open Education Declaration was signed.
In 2008 theOpen Education Global (OEGlobal) was launched by theOpenCourseware Consortium.[8]
In 2008 theVirginia Open Education Foundation aiming atK–12 education.
In the 2010seducational servicesplatform as a service (PaaS) suchEdX,Coursera, andUdacity.
In 2012 theOpen Education Week was inaugurated, as an annual event that occurs in the first week of March,[9][10] where people from all over the world can sharebest practices in aconferencefair.[11]
In 2019 open education has become theopen standard of theUnited Nations Education Science Culture Organization (UNESCO) forworld education.[12]
In 2023UNESCOUniversity Twinning and Networking Programme (UNITWIN)United Nations Open Education (UNOE) was founded.[13][14]
In 2025 an article inScientific Reports discussed a multilayered framework predictingacademic performance in open and distance learning.[15]
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While open educational resources are intended to expand access and reduce barriers to learning, they are often delivered through third-party technologies that may gather user data or share information with external entities. In some cases, students must accept broad terms of service in order to participate in online courses, which may include provisions for commercial data use or surveillance. These practices can conflict with the foundational goals of open education, including learner autonomy, transparency, and equitable access.[17][18]
Open education platforms, including learning management systems and online tools, often fail to provide transparency about their data collection and usage practices, which can exacerbate privacy concerns for students.[26] The lack of user consent regarding how their personal information is handled creates a vulnerability for the user. The long-term storage of sensitive personal data, such asbiometric information for authentication and proctoring, can increase risks if proper security policies and measures are not implemented.[18]
Many smart education environments are at risk due to poor security, and they become susceptible to cyberattacks such as malware andphishing.[18] A study by the University of Chicago and New York University found that these tools can track a wide range of student activities, usually collecting more data than is necessary for educational purposes.[27] This raises concerns about the potential for surveillance and the misuse of personal information, which includes students' academic records, study habits, and learning behaviors. Experts recommend that open education platforms prioritizetransparency, robust security measures, and clear data policies to help mitigate these privacy and data security risks.[26]
Open education studiestheory is motivated by a belief that learners want to exerciseagency in their studies, particularly from alifelong learning perspective. Throughout its history, open education has been associated with multiple meanings: access, flexibility, equity, collaboration, agency, democratisation, social justice, transparency, and removing barriers.[22]
Researchers and practitioners in the field of open education have adopted generic educational theories such associal constructivism,behaviourism, andcognitivism,[23] and then generated their own theoretical foundations following the emergence ofopen universities[28] and the emergence of powerful and sophisticated digital technologies, such asnetworked learning orconnectivism.
Open education has also been influenced by thephilosophy of education ofopenness,[22] characterized by an emphasis ontransparency andcollaboration.[29] Initial conceptualizations of open education were characterized by independent study, where learners are independent of time and space through asynchronous learning, but also independent in developing their own learning strategies and practices, focused on personalized learning and learner autonomy and agency.
Thecommunity of inquiry (CoI) model proposed by Garrison, Anderson, and Archer (2000)[30] was developed to provide conceptual order and act as a heuristic tool for the use ofcomputer-mediated communication in support of educational experiences, particularly relevant for online and open education. The CoI model argues that a meaningful online learning experience is created through a combination of and interaction between cognitive, social, and teaching presence.[22][30]
A range of other theories and conceptual frameworks relate to open education, including connectivism which adopts a non-linear approach to learning, influenced bycomplexity theory, where communities of knowledge are formed through connections forged in a networked learning environment.[31] Connectivism relates to openness through its emphasis on learner autonomy and agency and its use of OER.
The study ofautodidact self-determined learning, known asheutagogy also relates to open education, founded on the principles ofself-efficacy and capability, meta-cognition and reflection, and non-linear learning. Self determined learning is often viewed as part of a continuum experience betweenpedagogy,andragogy and heutagogy, reflecting a shift from teacher-centred to learner-determined environments and activities.[32]
A learning ecologies framework supports open education through both a lifelong andlifewide learning perspective, which is learning in different places simultaneously across the multiple contexts one inhabits.[33] A learning ecologies approach rests on the possibilities of new technologies in facilitating self-sustaining, interest-driven and boundary crossing learning, interrelated with the openness in education movement.
Arhizomatic learning approach can also underlie forms of open education, characterised as an organic process where the curriculum is connected to the community and the learner navigates diversely connected learning environments by making links, negotiating the learning process, and adapting to change.[34][35] In the most recent theoretical foundations of open education, including connectivism, heutagogy, and rhizomatic learning, openness arises from the learner-centred and non-linear design of learning contexts and resources and the promotion of learner agency and autonomy.[22]
Governments, institutions, and people realize the importance of education. Human knowledge is crucial to producing competent leaders, innovators, and teachers. Educational systems must provide each individual the chance in building a better life.
More recently, theories which support open education have developed in line with the rapid evolution of networked digital technologies and the sophistication of social software. Technology has made the expansion of educational opportunities easier.[36] Through the Internet, students can easily find information practically on any topic while mentors are capable of sharing their expertise with any student within seconds. Educational materials are disseminated to a global audience without additional costs. Evolving technology makes it possible for learners to interact with the global community in the comfort of their homes. Under distance learning, universities and colleges expand their impact through online courses that people in any country can take.[37]
Open education includes resources such as practices and tools that are not hampered by financial, technical, and legal impediments. These resources are used and shared easily within the digital settings. Technology revolutionized techniques in sending receiving information on a daily basis particularly in education. Availability of web resources has transformed everything.[38]
Open education is founded on open Eeducational resources (OER) comprised or learning, teaching, and research sources.[39] With Open Education, the costs of textbooks which surged over three times the rate of inflation for many years must not hinder education. Based on the NBC News review of the Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics data, prices of student books increased three times inflation rates from January 1977 until June 2015 reflecting an increase of 1,041 percent.[40][41]
During the COVID-19 pandemic, with the global lockdowns, remote learning gained popularity. Tools like Google Classroom, Nearpod, and Kahoot! helped facilitate the shift to online learning for millions of students.[27] OER can possibly address this problem since materials are free online and economical in printed form. Resources intended for buying textbooks can be rechanneled towards technology, enhancing the medium of instructions, and lowering debt.[42] Research studies also showed many students learn more because of their access to quality materials. Technology also has unlimited potentials in raising teaching and learning to a higher level.[43]
An example of an institutional practice in line with open education would be decreasingbarriers to entry, for example, eliminating academic admission requirements. Universities which follow such practices include theOpen University in Britain,Athabasca University andThompson Rivers University, Open Learning in Canada and theOpen University of Catalonia, in Spain, among many others (see full list here).Massive open online courses (MOOC) andOpenCourseWare are among the most recent and visible approaches to open education, adopted by universities worldwide. Although many MOOC's have free enrolment, the costs of acquiring acertification may be a barrier. Many open education institutes offer free certification schemesaccredited by organizations likeUKAS in the UK and ANAB in the United States; others offer abadge.
