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| Open Brethren (Christian Brethren) | |
|---|---|
| Classification | Protestant |
| Orientation | Plymouth Brethren |
| Polity | Congregationalist |
| Region | c. 130 countries |
| Founder | George Müller and others |
| Origin | 1848 Bristol, England |
| Separated from | Plymouth Brethren (N.B. The Open Brethren and theExclusive Brethren, which emerged from the schism, dispute which party was responsible for it) |
| Separations | Needed Truth Brethren, 1892 |
| Congregations | 25,000[1] |
| Members | 2 million est.[1] |
TheOpen Brethren, sometimes calledChristian Brethren, are a group ofEvangelicalChristian churches that arose in the late 1820s as part of theAssembly Movement within thePlymouth Brethren tradition. They originated in Ireland before spreading throughout the British Isles, and today they have an estimated 26,000 assemblies worldwide.
The OpenBrethren form independent, autonomous assemblies and the name "Open" is given to them to distinguish them from "Exclusive Brethren", with whom they share historic roots. The division of thePlymouth Brethren into the Open Brethren and the Exclusive Brethren took place in 1848.[2] Open Brethren are also commonly known as "Plymouth Brethren", especially in North America. Many Open Brethren outside North America, however, are unwilling to use the "Plymouth Brethren" designation because it is associated with the Exclusive Brethren, particularly thePlymouth Brethren Christian Church, which is known for its rigid interpretation of the doctrine ofseparation from the world.
The Brethren are committed tomissionary work and they also hold the view that theBible is the first authority in matters of faith and practice. Each assembly (or congregation) is independent of the others in doctrinal matters, yet there is a high degree of communication and cooperation among those who share a similar doctrine and practice.[3] Open Brethren assemblies form a continuum, from tight gatherings that extend fellowship only to those who have first left other denominations, to very loose gatherings that receive into fellowship any stranger without question.[4]
A building associated with a group of open brethren is usually called a "Gospel Chapel", "Gospel Hall", "Bible Chapel", "Christian Assembly" or other similar term. A sub-set of the Open Brethren are theGospel Hall Assemblies, who tend to be more conservative than their fellow Brethren in their practices.[5] Theologically, however, they differ very little.
The separation of the independent or open brethren from theExclusive Brethren occurred whenJohn Nelson Darby denouncedBenjamin Wills Newton, an elder of the Plymouth assembly, at that time the largest of the Brethren assemblies, over disagreements concerning prophecy and church organisation. Darby forced him to admit to theological errors, then attackedGeorge Müller andHenry Craik at Bethesda Chapel in Bristol for accepting two others of that assembly, even though they were not implicated in any of Newton's errors.
This led to a separation of Bethesda from Darby and a clear adoption of an independent orcongregational stance by many of the assemblies. The statement of the assembly at Tottenham gives clearly the position of the Open Brethren:
We welcome to the table, on individual grounds, each saint, not because he or she is a member of this or that gathering or denomination of Christians nor because they are followers of any particular leader, but on such testimony as commends itself to us as being sufficient. We distinctly refuse to be parties to any exclusion of those who, we are satisfied, are believers—except on grounds personally applying to their individual faith and conduct.[6]
The exclusive Darbyites "became more and more introverted and mystical as the years passed",[7] while the open brethren continued to develop an emphasis on the "faith missions" pioneered byAnthony Norris Groves in India andGeorge Müller with his orphanages in Bristol. In 1853, they started their first missionary journal,The Missionary Reporter. In 1859, thereligious revival which reached Britain had a transforming effect on many of the assemblies and brought in new leaders such asJoseph Denham Smith. Ulster became one of the stronger centres, and expansion occurred in Scotland and northern England. In London,Thomas John Barnardo began his rescue work with orphans.Dwight L. Moody from Chicago, on a trip to England to visit George Müller andCharles H. Spurgeon, met a young man in a Dublin assembly,Henry Moorhouse, who was to profoundly influence his preaching style when he preached at Moody's church, revolutionising his work as an evangelist.
In Barnstaple, one of the largest early brethren assemblies developed from the inspiring example ofRobert Cleaver Chapman, who continued his ministry until the end of the century. He had made an evangelistic tour of Spain in 1838 and after 1869 the work expanded in Barcelona and Madrid and also in Portugal. In Italy, an indigenous development byCount Guicciardini linked up withT. P. Rossetti (a cousin ofDante Gabriel Rossetti) in England although the Protestant "Brethren" faced persecution and imprisonment by the Catholic church.
The movement soon spread with English-speaking emigrants to Australia and New Zealand as well as to the United States and Canada. Some 600 congregations were recorded in 1959 in the U.S. and 300 in Canada.[8]
By the middle of the twentieth century, a number of streams were becoming apparent within the Open Brethren, especially in North America. A clear line of demarcation (albeit with some overlap) appeared between more conservative assemblies, generally known asGospel Halls, and the more "progressive"Bible Chapels, with the latter being more receptive to innovations like accompanied music and collaboration with non-Brethren Christians.Robert McClurkin was welcome in both circles, but he complained that the Gospel Halls were being influenced by literature from the very strictNeeded Truth movement (an 1892 schism from the Open Brethren), and that a rigid line of demarcation was being drawn. This line was far less pronounced outside of North America, however.
In the second half of the twentieth century, the Brethren movement diversified further still, especially through cultural adaptations inThird World countries. Examples of this include some assemblies inPapua New Guinea, which began usingcoconut flesh and milk instead of bread and wine to celebrate Holy Communion (or "the Lord's Supper", as many Brethren prefer to call it). In France, Brethren have established a central committee offering leadership and direction to assemblies that choose to participate, despite the common Brethren aversion to central organisations, while Brethren inEthiopia have leadership conferences at which some collective decision-making takes place. In Germany, many Brethren assemblies have joinedWiedenest, a joint Brethren–Baptist venture which operates aseminary, conference centre, youth movement, andmissionary organisation. In predominantly MuslimPakistan, some assemblies seat men and women on opposite sides of the room, as in amosque. When they pray, they do so on their knees.[9]
International Brethren Conferences on Mission (IBCM) were founded in 1993 inSingapore by unions of churches from various countries.[10]
According to an IBCM Network census released in 2020, they claimed 40,000 churches and 2,700,000 members in 155 countries.[11]
In Open Brethren meetings, each local assembly is independent and autonomous, so the characteristics of each may differ to a greater or lesser degree, which makes it difficult to generalise when describing distinctive characteristics. They have no centralhierarchy to dictate a statement of faith, and even local assemblies have traditionally been reluctant to adhere to any of the historic "Creeds" and "Confessions of Faith" found in many Protestant denominations. This is not because they are opposed to the central sentiments and doctrines expressed in such formulations, but rather because they hold the Bible as their sole authority in regard to matters of doctrine and practice. In the last two decades, however, some Brethren assemblies have adopted statements of faith, generally emphasisingfundamentalist doctrines. Like many non-conformist churches, Brethren observe only the twoordinances of Baptism and Communion.
In many countries, the termsconservative andprogressive are informally used to describe the character of particular Brethren assemblies. Congregations calling themselves "Gospel Chapels", and even more so "Gospel Halls", are often described as "conservative" and tend to put more emphasis on distinctive Brethren doctrines and features. Congregations calling themselves "Community Churches" or "Evangelical Churches" are often described as "progressive"; these tend to put less emphasis (and in some cases, no emphasis) on Brethren distinctives. When assemblies known as "Bible Chapels" first became common in the 1950s, they were considered very progressive compared to other assemblies of that time; today, some of them are still considered progressive, but others are now considered to be somewhat conservative by today's standards. Congregations calling themselves "churches" are almost invariably at the progressive end of the Brethren spectrum. The "conservative" and "progressive" labels, in general, refer to differences in style, not doctrine: few assemblies, if any, have moved away from Evangelical theology.
The most notable differences between Brethren and other Christian groups lie in a number of doctrinal beliefs that affect the practice of their gatherings and behaviour. These beliefs and practices can be summarised as follows:[12]
The Open Brethren are generallydispensational,pre-tribulational, andpremillennial in their theology (although there are many variations) and they have much in common with other conservative evangelical Christian groups. Most of them teach the "eternal security" of the true Christian, with each believer being subject to "grace" and not "law".[13]
Justification byfaith alone (sola fide) states that it is by grace through faith alone that Christians receive salvation and not through any works of their own (see Ephesians 2:8, Romans 3:23). Open Brethren have a strong emphasis on the concept ofsalvation. The brethren teach that the consequence of human sin is condemnation to eternal death in hell.Christ's death on the cross paid sin's penalty and his resurrection is evidence that eternal life is available to any who will have it. The only requirements are that each individual accepts the substitutionary payment of his own sin by faith in Christ's death.
The Open Brethren teach thatbaptism plays no role in salvation, and is properly performed only after a person professesJesus Christ as Saviour. Baptism is an outward expression that symbolises the inward cleansing or remission of a person's sins which has already taken place at salvation. Baptism is also a public identification of that person with Jesus Christ. In many assemblies, an individual is considered a member of that assembly once he or she is baptised.
In other assemblies, however, an individual (after baptism) must show a commitment to a particular assembly by faithful attendance to as many assembly meetings as possible. In such assemblies, it is usually the recently baptised individual who will request fellowship, but not always, as any concerned assembly member may contact the individual to determine their intentions with regard to assembly fellowship. Once it is shown that the individual desires acceptance into assembly fellowship, that desire is then communicated to the gathered assembly so that all members may have opportunity to express any concerns regarding the applicant. Once the applicant meets with the approval of the assembly members, an announcement is made to the gathered assembly that the applicant will be received into full assembly fellowship, which would be the first Sunday (Lord's Day) following the announcement.
Open Brethren emphasise baptism by full immersion. This mode is preferred for its parallel imagery to the death, burial and resurrection of Christ. Immersion baptism is also seen as a practice established by the baptism of Jesus Christ by John the Baptist and is therefore Biblically based. Baptism may occur in any body of water that will allow full immersion, though many Brethren assembly halls will have a baptistry. Baptismal services are celebratory and are often linked to an evangelistic meeting.
Most Brethren have always considered what many callDispensationalism to be the proper interpretation of what the apostles taught. Many of them believe that Brethren pioneerJohn Nelson Darby was the first in modern times to "rediscover" this "forgotten" teaching of the apostles. A number of influential non-Brethren Evangelical leaders were influenced by Darby's teaching, men such asD. L. Moody and, indirectly,C. I. Scofield, who popularized this view through hisScofield Reference Bible. In essence, Dispensationalism as taught by the Brethren sees a clear distinction between "law" and "grace", Israel and the Church. It also holds that the Church, consisting of all genuine NT believers, will beraptured when the Lord returnsin the clouds, not to the earth, with the spirits of the NT believers who had previously died. At this time the bodies of the living believers will be transformed and the bodies of the NT believers who had previously died will be resurrected and united with their spirits. This will be followed by a seven-yearGreat Tribulation during which God will turn his attention back to the Jews, who will ultimately recognize The Lord Jesus Christ as theirMessiah, thus triggering his returnto the earth to save them from annihilation. This period will be followed by a thousand-yearMillennium during which The Lord Jesus Christ will reign as King of Kings and Lord of Lords.
Although generally held by most Brethren, both historical and contemporary, there have always been some Brethren who rejected Dispensationalism.George Müller andG. H. Lang were among the prominent Brethren leaders who never accepted this doctrine, and non-Dispensationalism has always been followed by a significant minority of Open Brethren in the United Kingdom. Until much more recently, however, Dispensationalism was much more universally held among Brethren outside of the United Kingdom.
Most of the Brethren pioneers such as Groves, Darby and Muller were convincedCalvinists. By the 1930s, however, a strongArminian strain developed in many parts of the Brethren movement, especially in North America.[14] Today, it is common to find Brethren advocates for both theological systems, with the caveat that even those who embrace Arminianism in the main will still generally hold to the fifth point of Calvinism, which Brethren call theeternal security of the believer[15]—the doctrine that it is impossible for a true Christian to lose his or her salvation. Even today, it is rare to find a Brethren preacher or an official Brethren publication questioning this doctrine.
Although some of the early Brethren pioneers were initially interested in the miraculous gifts of the Holy Spirit such asmiracles,healing andspeaking in tongues that were being practised by theCatholic Apostolic Church ofEdward Irving, with whom many of the early Brethren were acquainted, they soon adopted aCessationist position, which was to remain the prevailing Brethren view for the best part of two centuries. Cessationism holds that the sign gifts were given to the early Church only, for the specific purpose of authenticating theApostles, and "ceased" with the death of the last Apostle, usually believed to beJohn, around the end of the first century.
Until very recent times, this doctrine was the nearly unanimous view of Brethren preachers and Brethren institutions (publications, Bible colleges, and missions agencies). A few prominent Brethren did question it: G. H. Lang expressed doubts about it in the 1920s,[16] andHarry Ironside, perhaps the most influential Brethren preacher who ever lived, rejected it in principle in 1938. Although he condemnedPentecostalism,[17] the "package" in which the sign gifts were most often seen, he nevertheless said that he did not believe that the age of miracles had ceased.[18] Most Brethren preachers, however, remained unwilling to compromise on this stance. Although Brethren theologianErnest Tatham published a book,Let the tide come in! in 1976, saying that he had been mistaken in his previous support for Cessationism,[19][20] most Brethren remained opposed to theCharismatic movement. A handful of Brethren assemblies around the world did begin to embrace the Charismatic movement in the late 1970s and early 1980s, but it remained very much a fringe element among Brethren until the early 2000s.
Today, Brethren attitudes to the "sign gifts" are much more diverse than in the past. In the early 2000s,Dutch theologian Willem Ouweneel became one of the first high-profile Brethren leaders to publicly endorse the charismatic movement without leaving the Brethren.[21] A significant minority of Open Brethren assemblies in New Zealand, along with some in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom, have embraced the Charismatic movement over the past fifteen years, and many more now describe themselves as cautiously receptive to it. Other assemblies, however, have responded by formalising their commitment to Cessationism. Despite the traditional Brethren aversion to having written statements of faith, some assemblies have recently adopted a statement of faith denying the continuity of the sign gifts. In India, too, some Brethren assemblies have embraced the Charismatic movement, but most prominentIndian Brethren preachers, such asJohnson Philip, principal ofBrethren Theological College inKerala,[22] remain opposed.[23]
Brethren churches have traditionally avoided crosses displayed inside or outside their place of worship. As the focus is onChrist and the Word of God.[24] they typically view an unembellished room as more effective.[25][26] Similarly, crosses are not typically placed inside homes or worn around the neck by these believers. Other symbols such as stained glass windows for their normal meeting hall have also been traditionally discouraged. In the past two decades, however, some of the more "progressive" assemblies have abandoned this traditional stance.
Meetings do not usually follow a setliturgy. Liturgical calendars of "High Church" groups, such as theAnglican orLutheran churches, are almost universally avoided. Traditionally, many Brethren groups did not celebrateChristmas orEaster, arguing that there is no Biblical command to do so. There are still some assemblies that take this stance, but many Brethren churches today do celebrate these festivals, and sometimes use them as an occasion to evangelise in the community.
Until recently, Brethren churches have rarely used the word "Church" as part of their name. Open Brethren groups usually called their places of worship "Gospel Halls" or "Gospel Chapels", with the latter generally being somewhat less sectarian (i.e., more open to cooperating with non-Brethren Christians) than the former. A third group, called "Bible Chapels", became widespread in North America and Oceania from the 1950s onwards. Bible Chapels are often more willing to use musical accompaniment in worship and are generally very willing to cooperate with other Christians who share their Evangelical beliefs. In recent years, many of the more progressive assemblies have moved away from their previous aversion to the word "church" and may now be called "Community Church" (especially in Canada, Australia, or New Zealand), or "Evangelical Church" (in the United Kingdom). It is important to note that these distinctions are purely descriptive; they (generally) denote differences in worship and administrative style, not affiliation.
Some Brethren churches have Bible names, e.g., "Ebenezer Gospel Hall", "Hebron Chapel", "Shiloh Bible Chapel" and "Bethel Assembly"; sometimes they are named after the street on which they are found, e.g. Curzon Street Gospel Hall,Derby; sometimes after the locality, e.g.Ballynagarrick Gospel Hall. Some assemblies at the progressive end of the Brethren spectrum have names like "Life Church,Manurewa", or "Street City Church,Wellington".
In most parts of the world, the "Brethren" label is rarely used as part of the name of a local congregation. A notable exception is India, many of whose local assemblies do use it as part of their name, e.g.Ebenezer Brethren Assembly.[27]
Open Brethren assemblies have traditionally rejected the concept of anyone "joining" as a member of a particular local gathering of believers and the maintenance of any list of such members.[28] Brethren emphasise the Christian doctrine of the one "Church" made up of all true believers and enumerated inHeaven in "Lamb's Book of Life",[29] rather than by humans. However, as a practical matter, in the late twentieth century many American assemblies began maintaining lists of those in regular attendance at meetings. This was often to comply with secular governance issues or to offer a directory of attendees for internal use. The Open Brethren emphasise that meeting attendance for the nonbeliever has no direct spiritual benefit (though it is hoped the individual may be influenced to convert). Nonbelievers are not to partake of the "Breaking of Bread", though this proves generally difficult to enforce in larger assemblies. Regardless, regular attendance for believers is felt to be an act of obedience to the New Testament command that they should not neglect the assembling of themselves together.[30] Despite the Brethren's rejection of the term 'member', many observers use the term to refer to those who attend meetings. Visiting brethren have traditionally been expected to bring a "letter of commendation" from their "home assembly", assuring the group they are visiting that they are in fellowship and not under any form of discipline. This practice is somewhat less common today than in years past, however.
While much of typical Brethren theology closely parallels non-Calvinist English and AmericanBaptist traditions on many points, the view on clergy is much closer to theQuakers in rejecting the idea ofclergy. Many Protestant denominations claim adherence to the New Testament doctrine of the priesthood of all believers[31] to varying extents. One of the most defining elements of the Brethren is the rejection of the concept of clergy. Rather, in keeping with the doctrine of thePriesthood of all believers, they view all Christians as being ordained by God to serve and are therefore ministers. The Brethren embrace the most extensive form of that idea in that there is no ordained or unordained person or group employed to function asminister(s) orpastor(s).
Brethren assemblies are led by the local church elders within any fellowship and historically there is no office of "senior pastor" in most Brethren churches, because they believe such an office does not exist in the New Testament. The English word in its plural form, "pastors", is found only once in many English versions of the New Testament, being a translation of the originalKoine Greek wordpoimenas as found in Ephesians 4:11. Therefore, there is no formal ordination process for those who preach, teach, or lead, within their meetings. In place of an ordained ministry, an itinerant preacher often receives a "commendation" to the work of preaching and/or teaching that demonstrates the blessing and support of the assembly of origin. In most English-speaking countries, such preachers have traditionally been called "full time workers", "labouring brothers", or "on the Lord's work"; in India, they are usually calledEvangelists and very often are identified withEvg. in front of their name. A given assembly may have any number of full-time workers, or none at all.
In the last twenty years, many assemblies in Australia and New Zealand, and some elsewhere, have broken with tradition and have begun calling their full-time workers "Pastors", but this is not seen as ordaining clergy and does not connote a transfer of any special spiritual authority. In such assemblies, the Pastor is simply one of several elders, and differs from his fellow-elders only in being salaried to serve full-time. Depending on the assembly, he may, or may not, take a larger share of the responsibility for preaching than his fellow-elders.
The Open Brethren believe in aplurality of elders (Acts 14:23; 15:6,23; 20:17; Philippians 1:1)—men meeting the Biblical qualifications found in 1 Timothy 3:1–7 and Titus 1:6–9. This position is also taken in someBaptist churches, especiallyReformed Baptists, and by theChurches of Christ. It is understood thatelders are appointed by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28) and are recognised as meeting the qualifications by the assembly and by previously existing elders, whereas some believe in the time of the establishment of the first New Testament assemblies it was either an apostle's duty or his directly appointed delegate's responsibility to ordain elders (for example, Timothy or Titus), this original order being consistent with the Christian concept that authority comes from above and does not arise from men.
Men who become elders, or those who become deacons and overseers within the fellowship, are ones who have been recognised by others within the individual assemblies and have been given the blessing of performing leadership tasks by the elders.[32] An elder should be able and ready toteach when his assembly sees the "call of God" on his life to assume the office of elder (1 Timothy 3:2). Brethren elders conduct many other duties that would be typically performed by "the clergy" in other Christian groups, including: counselling those who have decided to be baptised, performing baptisms, visiting the sick and giving spiritual counsel in general. Normally, sermons are given by either the elders or men who regularly attend the Sunday meetings; but, again, only men whom the elders recognise have the "call of God" on their lives. Visiting speakers, however, are usually paid their travel costs and provided for with Sunday meals following the meetings.
The main role of the "deacon" is to assist the elders with members' needs. Deacons are usually chosen from members who have demonstrated exceptional Christian piety. (see 1 Timothy 3:8–12). However, in many meetings there is no official list of deacons, diaconal work being shared by anyone willing to give a helping hand in a particular task.
Brethren groups generally recognise from the teachings of theApostle Paul'sepistles that not all the believers in any one fellowship are suited to give public ministry such as teaching and preaching.[33]
A distinctive practice of the Brethren is a separate weekly Communion meeting, referred to as the "Breaking of Bread" or "The Lord's Supper". Although specific practices will vary from meeting to meeting, there are general similarities.
One reason for not taking up an offering at all meetings is to avoid causing any unbelievers who may be present to think that they might gain a spiritual benefit by making a donation. Some assemblies never send an offering bag round the congregation, even at the Breaking of Bread meeting. They prefer to simply have a box or two located at the back of the meeting hall, thus avoiding even the appearance of solicitation for funds. Many assemblies operate a "back seat" or "guest row" during the Breaking of Bread so that neither the offering bag nor the emblems of bread and wine will pass down the row of those not in fellowship. An offering bag, basket or box may be sent around after these two "emblems" have been passed, collecting money given voluntarily for use in maintaining the building, hall or room, to remunerate full-time or labouring members, or for distribution to the needy. In some cases an offering box may be placed at the door and not circulated.
On the other hand, many of the more progressive assemblies welcome any who profess Jesus Christ as the Saviour and who give evidence of such after simple questioning by either one or more of the assembly elders or one or more of those ushering at that particular meeting. At some assemblies, a pamphlet explaining the Scriptural basis and purpose of the Lord's Supper is handed to visitors before they enter the main meeting room where the assembly is gathered preparing themselves for worship. This pamphlet explains to the visitor what they are about to witness and perhaps, if they so choose, be a participant in.
Following the Remembrance meeting there may be one other Sunday meeting, or perhaps more. Whereas the purpose of the Lord's Supper is predominantly for worship, recalling the person and work of Christ, other meetings involve Bible teaching, evangelism and gospel preaching (among young and old). Sunday Schools and Bible classes are common. In ministry and Gospel meetings the congregation, seated in rows facing a pulpit or platform, sing hymns and choruses and listen to Scripture readings and a sermon preached by one of the brethren called to "preach". Bible teaching may be given either in the form of a ministry meeting in which a sermon is delivered or in a "Bible reading" or "Bible study" in which the men discuss a portion of Scripture.
No distinction is made in Brethren teaching between men and women in their individual relation to Christ and his "vicariousatonement" for them on the cross, or their individual position before God as believers. However, in most Brethren meetings the principle of "male headship" is applied in accordance with teaching found in several passages in the Bible, including 1 Corinthians 11:3, which says:
But I would have you know, that the head of every man is Christ; and the head of the woman is the man; and the head of Christ is God.
1 The Head of every man is Christ—no equality. 2 The head of the woman is the man—equality and subjection. 3 The Head of Christ is God—equality, yet subjection.[39]
Thus most Brethren meetings reserve public leadership and teaching roles to men, based on 1 Timothy 2:11,12 ... :
A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent.
Also, 1 Corinthians 14:34,35 states,
Let your women keep silence in the churches: for it is not permitted unto them to speak; but they are commanded to be under obedience, as also saith the law. And if they will learn any thing, let them ask their husbands at home: for it is a shame for women to speak in the church. (The reason for this has to do with acknowledging Headship: Headship and the head covering are seen by many as inseparable since the head covering is intended to teach the meaning of headship. See below for information on the head covering).
From this, Brethren teaching traditionally (though with regional exceptions) outlines a system in which the men take the "vocal" and leadership roles and the women take supportive and "silent" roles. Traditionally, women have not usually been permitted to participate in individual speech during the "Breaking of Bread" meeting. In most Brethren groups women would be heard to sing the hymns along with the group, but their voices would not otherwise be heard during the meeting. Often the men are, practically speaking, the only ones involved fully and vocally in all discussions leading up to administrative decision making as well. There were some local exceptions in the past, with some women preaching in Brethren circles in the United Kingdom in the 1860s and 1870s, but these events were isolated and short-lived. A number of assemblies in the south of England, under the influence ofG. H. Lang, permitted women to participate audibly in worship (but not to preach) as far back as the 1930s, and a large network of assemblies in India, connected with the ministry ofBakht Singh, did the same from the 1950s onward. But these innovations had little impact beyond their immediate geographical areas. In the last two decades, however, a large number of assemblies in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as some in North America, have modified or abandoned this rule. Other assemblies, however, have reacted by placing more emphasis on this traditional teaching and by formalising what was previously an unwritten rule.
As to the reason behindwomen covering their heads at meetings in traditional Open Brethren services,1 Corinthians 11:5–6 says:
But every woman that prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonours her head: for that is even all one as if she were shaven. For if the woman is not covered, let her also be shorn: but if it is a shame for a woman to be shorn or shaven, let her be covered.
Open Brethren traditionally interpret this verse to mean that during prayer, a Christian women is supposed to have her head covered; this has been the historic practice in all of Christendom.[40] For this reason, Brethren meetings will be characterised by the women wearing head coverings ("loaners" in some assemblies are available at the back for women who have come without a covering). Head coverings typically take the form of ahanging veil,mantilla,shawl,tam,beret or other headcovering.[41]
While that is an overly simplified view of the head covering, the traditional Brethren understanding of the purpose for the head covering comes from their interpretation of 1 Corinthians 11:3&4, which says:
3But I would have you know, that the head of every man is Christ; and the head of the woman is the man; and the head of Christ is God.4 Every man praying or prophesying, having his head covered, dishonours his head.
Here is the "picture" that the head covering is understood to display: the Head of the man is Christ, so the man's physical head needs to be uncovered to honour his Head, Christ. The head of the woman is the man, so the woman's physical head must be covered, men are not on display in the church. The woman's head covering and silence in the church shows that the men participating are not on display but rather that Christ is on display.[39]
This practice is not as widely held by Brethren as it once was. Many assemblies throughout the world have developed to leave questions of head coverings, levels of female participation and responsibility to the discretion of the individual. But there are still some Brethren assemblies that seek to be completely untouched by changing attitudes within society regarding the role of women. They view the abandonment of the traditionally practised doctrine ofHeadship as evidence of an overallapostasy (or moral deterioration) within Christendom and as leading to disorder and eventual anarchy within their fellowships.
Assemblies prefer to use the term "meeting" to describe their gatherings rather than "service". The term "service", to some, is normally associated with a service or something which is offered for a fee. Assemblies might also have weekly meetings which might include: preaching/teaching meetings, missionary reports, Bible studies and prayer meetings. There is frequently a Sunday School for children and youth groups for teens. There may also be women's meetings, men's meetings, and, in some assemblies, specialized arts and crafts groups which are used as a form of evangelistic outreach to the community.
During the weekly Breaking of Bread meeting, hymns were traditionally sungunaccompanied by anymusical instrument, though many of the more progressive assemblies today have instrumental accompaniment. In some assemblies, hymns sung during the other types of meetings are accompanied bypiano orelectronic organ, though this practice varies among assemblies. Other musical instruments are used at some assemblies. Some assemblies blend traditional hymns with contemporary "Praise & Worship" music accompanied by bands. The name used by the assembly often gives a rough (but not infallible) guide to the music used in worship. The "Gospel Halls" would generally not use musical instruments in their services, whereas some "Gospel Chapels" and most "Bible Chapels" do use them and may have singing groups, choirs, "worship teams" of musicians, etc. Assemblies calling themselves "Community Churches" or "Evangelical Churches" may also accept modern Christian music, with drums, guitars, and other instruments.
A number of factors make it very difficult to know how many Brethren there are today, and estimates vary from 1 million[42] to as many as 2.5 million attenders in 25,000 congregations.[1] The factors hampering the gathering of statistics include the general lack of formal organization, as well as ambiguity over just what churches and networks form part of the Brethren network. InKerala, theKerala Brethren was established throughAnthony Norris Groves one of the founders of the Brethren Movement, who was also the brother in law ofGeorge Müller. There are a considerable number of independent evangelical churches in Australia and New Zealand, and some in the United Kingdom and Canada, that work closely with networks generally considered to be "Brethren", and there are also networks, such as theAssemblies Jehovah Shammah of India, which closely resemble the Brethren and are often counted by Open Brethren as part of their movement, but which are nevertheless historically distinct from it. There is no universally agreed criteria among Brethren to determine what assemblies and networks comprise part of Open Brethren movement, which partly explains the widely different statistics given.[43] Most assemblies that regard themselves as Brethren will "recognize" similar assemblies which regard themselves as such, however. The largest numbers of Open Brethren are to be found in India (450,000 adults and children in 2,200 assemblies, not counting another 300,000 adults and children in the Assemblies Jehovah Shammah); there are also over 1,000 assemblies each in Angola, Zambia and Chad as well as the United Kingdom and the United States, 800 in Brazil and over 600 in Germany. Assemblies are found in over 70 countries.[44] Piepkorn estimated the number of Open Brethren in North America in 1970 as 60,000 in 1,050 assemblies.
Open Brethren are noted for their commitment tomissionary work. In the earliest days of the Brethren movement,Anthony Norris Groves became one of the earliest "faith missionaries", travelling toBaghdad in 1829 to preach the gospel and the Bible without the aid of an establishedmissionary society.[45] Many later Brethren missionaries took the same stance, and included notable missionary pioneers such asGeorge Müller (founder of orphanages inBristol, England),Dan Crawford (Scottish missionary to central Africa), Charles Marsh (missionary toLafayette, Algeria from 1925 to 1969),[46] andJim Elliot,Ed McCully andPete Fleming (missionaries toEcuador killed by members of theHuaorani tribe).
While the majority of Open Brethren missionaries do not belong to a missionary society, there are a number of supporting organisations that give help and advice for missionaries: in the UK,Echoes of Service magazine,[47]Medical Missionary News and theLord's Work Trust[48] are notable organisations. Today, missionaries are found all over the world, with high concentrations inZambia and Southern Africa, Brazil, India, Western Europe and South East Asia. Brethren missionaries are still active in many parts of the world (1,223 from England, North America and Australasia[49]) and there are assemblies in Chile, Dominican Republic, Peru and South Africa, among others.[50]
Along with other evangelical churches in the United Kingdom, the Brethren have been declining in numbers since the 1950s, especially among the more conservative assemblies. Assemblies with more progressive approaches have grown, however. There has been a blurring of distinctions between some assemblies and other non-denominational and house church congregations.[51]
Outside the British Isles, the brethren have a large presence in theFaroe Islands, forming the largest non-conformist group amongst a population that predominantly belongs to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of the Faroe Islands.[52]
JN Darby's visits to Switzerland between 1835 and 1840 with critiques ofMethodist perfectionism resulted in the establishment of meetings inVevey in 1838 andLausanne in 1840 drawn from some of the dissenting churches.[53] Later he moved to France establishing outposts in theMontpellier region. During this time he was also translating the New Testament into French. "During the five years that followed Darby's arrival in Lausanne, his principles spread far and wide in French Switzerland, and obtained some successes in Berne and Bâle."[54]
The next move came from a visit byGeorge Müller to a Baptist church inStuttgart in 1843 at the invitation of a lady who had visited him in Bristol. "One or two of the elders having determined to reject him, a meeting "for the breaking of bread" was started in his private room the same evening. Seventeen persons were present." In 1854, Darby visited Germany with meetings being set up atElberfeld andDüsseldorf among others.[55]
The expansion of the Plymouth Brethren outside of the British Isles started early, when Anthony Norris Groves left to become a missionary in 1829, first inBaghdad and then in India. Although his work as a dentist in theGodavari delta area of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu progressed slowly, it produced in time a flourishing movement ofIndian Brethren with a particular emphasis inKerala. According toOperation World, there are 135,000 adult believers in 1929 assemblies throughout India (449,550 if children are included).[56] Internal Brethren sources say that the number of assemblies has increased to 2200 and the number of adult believers in fellowship to 200,000, since Operation World was published in 2010.
TheAssemblies Jehovah Shammah movement, founded by the evangelistBakht Singh, are organized largely on Brethren principles with adaptations to Indian culture. Despite some differences from the older Brethren movement that was the fruit of British missionary efforts (such as his encouragement for women to take part audibly in worship), many Indian and foreign Brethren "recognize" the Assemblies Jehovah Shammah as a subset of the Open Brethren movement, albeit one that developed independently. Operation World claims 910 Assemblies Jehovah Shammah with 310,000 affiliates, 95,000 of them adults.[56]
An important stream of the Open Brethren is theKerala Brethren. Kerala is a small state in India, but has more than 600 Open or Plymouth Brethren Assemblies. Brethren members believe that these assemblies are the result of an independent movement of theHoly Spirit in India. Eventually the Plymouth Brethren and the Kerala Brethren recognized the similarities in both the movements and thus the Kerala Brethren came to be identified as a sub-set of the Open Brethren.[57]
Itinerant preachers carried both the open brethren to North America after the middle of the nineteenth century.[58] Darby made a number of visits in the 1870s and his emphasis on prophecy was influential. The Brethren movement has spread throughout the United States and Canada through evangelistic endeavours, immigration from the UK and Commonwealth countries, and by attracting Christians from other backgrounds with its emphasis on Biblicism, centrality of the Lord's Supper and equality of all believers under Christ, as well as its avoidance of denominational governance. Open Brethren congregations in America often are barely distinguishable from other evangelical denominations on the outside and often engage in joint efforts with other Christians in their communities. On the other hand, some previously thriving Brethren assemblies have seen dwindling attendances in recent years due in part to the lack of strong denominational loyalties and cultural discomfort with some brethren practices, such as head covering for women and silence of women in preaching and teaching in main services. In America, the designation of the building in which Open Brethren assemblies meet most often include the word "Chapel" in their formal name, combined with a biblical place name or principle or otherwise a local geographic feature—for instance, Bethany Chapel, Central Gospel Chapel, Park Road Bible Chapel, Riverview Believers Chapel. But unlike many other Christian groups, the names of Christian saints, (e.g. Paul, Luke) are rarely or never used. Closed groups, however, avoid "taking a name" to their group. A Closed group building is referred to as a "Meeting Room" or "Gospel Hall", and the word "Chapel" is avoided.
According to the Evangelical publication,Operation World, there are 320 Brethren congregations in Australia[59] and 202 in New Zealand,[60] with 46,176 affiliates in the former and 16,164 in the latter. Some Brethren sources claim the latter number to be underestimated, with internal sources indicating as many as 38,000 adults and children attending Brethren assemblies — almost one percent of New Zealand's population.[61]
The Brethren in both countries have diversified greatly in the last generation. "Gospel Chapels" tend to be conservative; "Gospel Halls" even more so. "Bible Chapels" include both conservative and progressive assemblies, while "Community Churches" (often similar to the Brethren-affiliated "Evangelical Churches" of the United Kingdom) tend to be at the progressive end of the spectrum, often with salaried pastors, women taking an audible part in worship — and sometimes in leadership, and varying degrees of openness to theCharismatic movement. "Bible Churches" tend to embrace many progressive trends, but generally retain a male-only leadership and continue to disassociate themselves from the Charismatic movement.
Although Brethren leaders throughout New Zealand unanimously rejected the Charismatic movement in 1964,[62] attitudes today are much more diverse. Complete rejection, and uncritical acceptance, of this movement are both minority positions among New Zealand Brethren today.
It is worth nothing that although many "Community Churches" and "Bible Churches" in New Zealand are part of the Open Brethren movement, others — such asMairangi Bay Community Church andAuckland Bible Church — are not. This is often seen as one of many signs that the line of demarcation between Brethren assemblies and other independent Evangelical churches is becoming blurred — a situation that some Brethren welcome, and some do not.
The Brethren movement in Australia, too, has diversified, with the more progressive assemblies generally growing and the more conservative ones declining.
In both Australia and New Zealand, Open Brethren have been embarrassed by negative publicity surrounding thePlymouth Brethren Christian Church, a hardline branch of the Exclusive Brethren (and the only Exclusive group to exist in significant numbers in either country), which some defectors have accused of being acult. In Australia, the Open Brethren network has rebranded itself as theChristian Community Churches of Australia, partly because of public confusion between their own movement and the Exclusives.
The influence of the Plymouth Brethren upon evangelical Christianity exceeds their relatively small numerical proportion. The movement today has many congregations around the world.
Christian Missions in Many Lands (CMML), in the United States,Missionary Service Committee (MSC), in Canada, andEchoes of Service, in the United Kingdom, serve as support agencies for Brethren missionaries, helping with logistics and material support. These agencies help to equip and support those sent from local churches.Hudson Taylor, the founder of theChina Inland Mission, kept strong ties with the Open Brethren, even though he was raised aMethodist and later was a member of aBaptist Church. The concept of "Faith Missions" can be traced back through Hudson Taylor, to the example of the early Brethren missionary,Anthony Norris Groves.
J.N. Darby, one of the original members and perhaps the best known of the movement, wrote over 50 books including atranslation of the New Testament and is often credited with the development of the theology of "dispensationalism" and "pretribulationism" which have been widely adopted in evangelical churches outside of the brethren movement. In the early twentieth century, J.N. Darby's writings have the greatest influence on theLittle Flock orChurch Assembly Hall ofWatchman Nee andWitness Lee.
Many leaders of the contemporary evangelical movement came from Brethren backgrounds. These include England-bornDr. D. Stuart Briscoe, author, international speaker and former senior pastor ofElmbrook Church (one of the 50 largest churches in the U.S.), inBrookfield, Wisconsin;Dr. Geoff Tunnicliffe, CEO of theWorld Evangelical Alliance; the late British scholarF. F. Bruce; 1956 Auca missionarymartyrsEd McCully,Jim Elliot andPeter Fleming; Walter Liefeld, NT professor atTrinity Evangelical Divinity School; the late preacher Dr.Harry A. Ironside, who wrote theHistorical Sketch of the Brethren Movement. Radio personalityGarrison Keillor was raised among the Plymouth Brethren, whom he sometimes refers to as the "sanctified brethren" in his News from "Lake Wobegon" monologues.Peter Maiden, the most recent previous leader ofOperation Mobilisation, also came from the Brethren.[63] Tony Evans, the widely syndicated radio broadcaster and pastor of Oak Cliff Bible Fellowship in Dallas, Texas comes from the Brethren assemblies.[64]William MacDonald, the popular author and Bible commentator was also with the Open Brethren group. In Asia,Dr G D James (1920-2003), known for his widespread evangelistic ministry and the founder ofAsia Evangelistic Fellowship (AEF)[65] was associated with the Brethren movement.[66]
Some of the more conservative assemblies discourage political involvement, sometimes to the extent of judging anyone in fellowship who opts to exercise their voting rights in democratic, free elections. This teaching is based on the premise that the Bible teaches that Christians are citizens of heaven, only sojourners here on earth, and therefore ought not to become involved in activities which could be deemed as being too worldly.[67] Some have claimed that the movement, with its upper-class roots, lacks compassion for the plight of the underprivileged, alleging, example, that it was left to non-Brethren likeWilliam Wilberforce,Lord Shaftesbury, and other politically active Christians to work toward the abolition of slavery and toward improving the welfare of factory children in the nineteenth century. Many Brethren, however, see this as unfair criticism and point toGeorge Müller's ministry caring for homeless orphans and also to the sacrifices of its missionaries such asAnthony Norris Groves. It is more reasonable, they claim, to state that the Brethren are more concerned with people's spiritual needs than with their physical condition. However, where physical help is given, it tends to be given directly and not through secular organisations.
In some parts of the world, this aversion to political involvement is no longer widely held. At least two members of theNew Zealand Parliament have belonged to the Open Brethren:Owen Jennings, an elder of theKaramea assembly (for theACT New Zealand Party), andJoe Hawke[68] (for theNew Zealand Labour Party). Both served from 1996 to 2002. In Canada,Cam Guthrie, a member of Lakeside Church, a Brethren-rooted[69]megachurch,[70] was elected Mayor ofGuelph,Ontario, in 2014.[71]Frank Valeriote, theLiberal PartyMember of Parliament for the riding ofGuelph, also attends Lakeside Church, even though he identifies asRoman Catholic.[72]
N.B. This is a list of individuals who were part of the Open Brethren movement for at least a part of their lives. For a list of individuals involved in the Brethren movement before the 1848 schism, see thePlymouth Brethren article.
The largestChristian Brethren Archive in the world is housed at theJohn Rylands University Library in Oxford Road,Manchester. It contains a large collection of materials, includingbooks andmanuscripts, relating to assemblies or meetings of Christians often called Plymouth Brethren, with particular reference to the British Isles.[97]
The second largest collection of Brethren material in the world,[citation needed] as well as being the largest in North America is found at the library ofEmmaus Bible College inDubuque, Iowa.
Hippolytus an early Church Father wrote, "Let all the women have their heads covered." Others who taught this practice in the Church were, John Calvin [father of the Reformed tradition], Martin Luther [father of the Lutheran tradition], Early Church Fathers, John Wesley [father of the Methodist tradition], Matthew Henry [Presbyterian theologian] to name just a few. We must remind ourselves that until the twentieth century, virtually all Christian women wore head coverings.
{{cite book}}:|work= ignored (help)Other sources of information are writings by B. W. Newton and W. Kelly.
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