He came toAthens at a young age and initially studied inPlato's school. After Plato's death, he attached himself to Aristotle who took to Theophrastus in his writings. When Aristotle fled Athens, Theophrastus took over as head of theLyceum.[3] Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for thirty-six years, during which time the school flourished greatly. He is often considered the father ofbotany for his works on plants.[4] After his death, the Athenians honoured him with a public funeral. His successor as head of the school wasStrato of Lampsacus.
The interests of Theophrastus were wide ranging, includingbiology,physics,ethics andmetaphysics. His two surviving botanical works,Enquiry into Plants (Historia Plantarum) andOn the Causes of Plants, were an important influence onRenaissance science. There are also surviving worksOn Moral Characters,On Sense Perception, andOn Stones, as well as fragments onPhysics andMetaphysics. In philosophy, he studiedgrammar andlanguage and continued Aristotle's work onlogic. He also regardedspace as the mere arrangement and position of bodies,time as an accident of motion, andmotion as a necessary consequence of all activity.[citation needed] Inethics, he regardedhappiness as depending on external influences as well as onvirtue.
Most of the biographical information about Theophrastus was provided byDiogenes Laërtius'Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, written more than four hundred years after Theophrastus's time.[5] He was a native ofEresos inLesbos.[6] His given name wasTyrtamus (Τύρταμος), but he later became known by the nickname "Theophrastus", given to him, it is said, byAristotle to indicate the grace of his conversation (from Ancient GreekΘεός 'god' andφράζειν 'to phrase', i.e. divine expression).[7]
After receiving instruction in philosophy on Lesbos from one Alcippus, he moved toAthens, where he may have studied underPlato.[a] He became friends with Aristotle, and when Plato died (348/7 BC) Theophrastus may have joined Aristotle in his self-imposed exile from Athens. When Aristotle moved toMytilene on Lesbos in 345/4, it is very likely that he did so at the urging of Theophrastus.[8] It seems that it was on Lesbos that Aristotle and Theophrastus began their research intonatural science, with Aristotle studying animals and Theophrastus studying plants.[9] Theophrastus probably accompanied Aristotle toMacedonia when Aristotle was appointed tutor toAlexander the Great in 343/2.[8] Around 335 BC, Theophrastus moved with Aristotle to Athens, where Aristotle began teaching in theLyceum. When, after the death of Alexander, anti-Macedonian feeling forced Aristotle to leave Athens, Theophrastus remained behind as head (scholarch) of thePeripatetic school,[8] a position he continued to hold after Aristotle's death in 322/1.
Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, includingNicomachus, with whom he was close.[b] Aristotle likewise bequeathed to him his library and the originals of his works,[c] and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum.[10]Eudemus of Rhodes also had some claims to this position, andAristoxenus is said to have resented Aristotle's choice.[11]
Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for 35 years,[12] and died at age 85, according to Diogenes.[13][d]He is said to have remarked, "We die just when we are beginning to live".[14]
Under his guidance, the school flourished greatly—there were at one period more than 2,000 students, Diogenes affirms[15]—and at his death, according to the terms of his will preserved by Diogenes, he bequeathed to it his garden with house and colonnades as a permanent seat of instruction. The comic poetMenander was among his pupils.[15] His popularity was shown in the regard paid to him byPhilip,Cassander, andPtolemy, and by the complete failure of a charge of impiety brought against him.[16][17] He was honored with a public funeral, and "the whole population of Athens, honouring him greatly, followed him to the grave."[11][18] He was succeeded as head of the Lyceum byStrato of Lampsacus.
From the lists of Diogenes, giving 227 titles, it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended over the whole field of contemporary knowledge. His writing probably differed little from Aristotle's treatment of the same themes, though supplementary in details. Like Aristotle, most of his writings arelost works.[11] Thus Theophrastus, like Aristotle, had composed a first and secondAnalytic (Ἀναλυτικῶν προτέρων andἈναλυτικῶν ὑστέρων).[19] He had also written books onTopics (Ἀνηγμένων τόπων,Τοπικῶν andΤὰ πρὸ τῶν τόπων);[20] on theAnalysis of Syllogisms (Περὶ ἀναλύσεως συλλογισμῶν andΠερὶ συλλογισμῶν λύσεως), onSophisms (Σοφισμάτων) and onAffirmation and Denial (Περὶ καταφάσεως καὶ ἀποφάσεως)[21] as well as on theNatural Philosophy (Περὶ φύσεως,Περὶ φυσικῶν,Φυσικῶν and others), onHeaven (Περὶ οὐρανοῦ), and onMeteorological Phenomena (Τῆς μεταρσιολεσχίας andΜεταρσιολογικῶν).[22]
Frontispiece to the illustrated 1644 edition of theEnquiry into Plants (Historia Plantarum)
In addition, Theophrastus wrote on theWarm and the Cold (Περὶ θερμοῦ καὶ ψυχροῦ),[23] onWater (Περὶ ὕδατος),Fire (Περὶ πυρóς),[24] theSea (Περὶ θαλάττης),[24] onCoagulation and Melting (Περὶ πήξεων καὶ τήξεων), on various phenomena of organic and spiritual life,[24] and on theSoul (Περὶ ψυχῆς), onExperience (Περὶ ἐμπειρίας) andOn Sense Perception (also known asOn the Senses;Περὶ αἰσθήσεων).[25] Likewise, we find mention of monographs of Theophrastus on the early Greek philosophersAnaximenes,Anaxagoras,Empedocles,Archelaus,[26]Diogenes of Apollonia,Democritus,[27] which were made use of bySimplicius; and also onXenocrates,[28] against theAcademics,[29] and a sketch of the political doctrine ofPlato.[27]
He studied general history, as we know fromPlutarch's lives ofLycurgus,Solon,Aristides,Pericles,Nicias,Alcibiades,Lysander,Agesilaus, andDemosthenes, which were probably borrowed from the work onLives (Περὶ βίων).[19] But his main efforts were to continue the labours of Aristotle innatural history. This is testified to not only by a number of treatises on individual subjects ofzoology, of which, besides the titles, only fragments remain, but also by his booksOn Stones, hisEnquiry into Plants, andOn the Causes of Plants (see below), which have come down to us entire. In politics, also, he seems to have trodden in the footsteps of Aristotle. Besides his books on theState (Πολιτικῶν andΠολιτικοῦ), we find quoted various treatises onEducation (Περὶ παιδείας βασιλέως andΠερὶ παιδείας),[30] onRoyalty (Περὶ βασιλείας,Περὶ παιδείας βασιλέως andΠρὸς Κάσανδρον περὶ βασιλείας),[31] on theBest State (Περὶ τῆς ἀρίστης πολιτείας), onPolitical Morals (Πολιτικῶν ἐθῶν), and particularly his works on theLaws (Νόμων κατὰ στοιχεῖον,Νόμων ἐπιτομῆς andΠερὶ νόμων), one of which, containing a recapitulation of the laws of variousbarbarian as well asGreek states, was intended to be a companion to Aristotle's outline ofPolitics, and must have been similar to it.[32] He also wrote onoratory andpoetry.[33] Theophrastus, without doubt, departed further from Aristotle in hisethical writings,[34] as also in hismetaphysical investigations ofmotion, thesoul, andGod.[35]
Besides these writings, Theophrastus wrote several collections of problems, out of which some things at least have passed into theProblems that have come down to us under the name of Aristotle,[36] and commentaries,[37] partlydialogue,[38] to which probably belonged theErotikos (Ἐρωτικός),[39]Megacles (Μεγακλῆς),[28]Callisthenes (Καλλισθένης),[40] andMegarikos (Μεγαρικός),[23] and letters,[41] partly books onmathematical sciences and their history.[42]
Many of his surviving works exist only in fragmentary form. "The style of these works, as of the botanical books, suggests that, as in the case of Aristotle, what we possess consists of notes for lectures or notes taken of lectures," his translator Arthur F. Hort remarks.[5] "There is no literary charm; the sentences are mostly compressed and highly elliptical, to the point sometimes of obscurity".[5] The text of these fragments and extracts is often so corrupt that there is a certain plausibility to the well-known story that the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus were allowed to languish in the cellar ofNeleus of Scepsis and his descendants.[43]
The most important of his books are two large botanical treatises,Enquiry into Plants (Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία, generally known asHistoria Plantarum), andOn the Causes of Plants (Greek:Περὶ αἰτιῶν φυτικῶν,Latin:De causis plantarum), which constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and the Middle Ages,[11] the first systemization of the botanical world; on the strength of these works some, followingLinnaeus, call him the "father ofbotany".[9]
TheEnquiry into Plants was originally ten books, of which nine survive. The work is arranged into a system whereby plants are classified according to their modes of generation, their localities, their sizes, and according to their practical uses such as foods, juices, herbs, etc.[44] The first book deals with the parts of plants; the second book with the reproduction of plants and the times and manner of sowing; the third, fourth, and fifth books are devoted to trees, their types, their locations, and their practical applications; the sixth book deals withshrubs and spiny plants; the seventh book deals with herbs; the eighth book deals with plants that produce edible seeds; and the ninth book deals with plants that produce useful juices,gums,resins, etc.[44]
On the Causes of Plants was originally eight books, of which six survive. It concerns the growth of plants; the influences on their fecundity; the proper times they should be sown and reaped; the methods of preparing the soil, manuring it, and the use of tools; and of the smells, tastes, and properties of many types of plants.[44] The work deals mainly with the economical uses of plants rather than their medicinal uses, although the latter is sometimes mentioned.[44] A book on wines and a book on plant smells may have once been part of the complete work.[45]
Although these works contain many absurd and fabulous statements, they include valuable observations concerning the functions and properties of plants.[44] Theophrastus observed the process ofgermination and recognized the significance of climate to plants. Much of the information on the Greek plants may have come from his own observations, as he is known to have travelled throughout Greece, and to have had a botanical garden of his own; but the works also profit from the reports on plants of Asia brought back from those who followedAlexander the Great:
Theophrastus'sEnquiry into Plants was first published in aLatin translation byTheodore Gaza, at Treviso, 1483;[e] in its originalGreek it first appeared from the press ofAldus Manutius at Venice, 1495–98, from a third-rate manuscript, which, like the majority of the manuscripts that were sent to printers' workshops in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, has disappeared.[f]Christian Wimmer identified two manuscripts of first quality, theCodex Urbinas in theVatican Library, which was not made known toJ. G. Schneider, who made the first modern critical edition, 1818–21, and the excerpts in theCodex Parisiensis in theBibliothèque nationale de France.
His bookCharacters (Ἠθικοὶ χαρακτῆρες) contains thirty brief outlines of moral types. They are the first recorded attempt at systematiccharacter writing. The book has been regarded by some as an independent work; others incline to the view that the sketches were written from time to time by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after his death; others, again, regard theCharacters as part of a larger systematic work, but the style of the book is against this. Theophrastus has found many imitators in this kind of writing, notablyJoseph Hall (1608),Sir Thomas Overbury (1614–16),Bishop Earle (1628), andJean de La Bruyère (1688), who also translated theCharacters.[11]George Eliot also took inspiration from Theophrastus'sCharacters, most notably in her book of caricatures,Impressions of Theophrastus Such. Writing the "character sketch" as a scholastic exercise also originated in Theophrastus's typology.[citation needed]
A treatiseOn Sense Perception (Περὶ αἰσθήσεων) and its objects is important for a knowledge of the doctrines of the more ancient Greek philosophers regarding the subject. A paraphrase and commentary on this work was written byPriscian of Lydia in the sixth century.[44] With this type of work we may connect the fragments onSmells, onFatigue, onDizziness, onSweat, onSwooning, onPalsy, and onHoney.[43]
Fragments of aHistory of Physics (Περὶ φυσικῶν ἱστοριῶν) are extant. To this class of work belong the still extant sections onFire, on theWinds, and on the signs ofWaters,Winds, andStorms.[47]
TheMetaphysics (anachronistic Greek title:Θεοφράστου τῶν μετὰ τὰ φυσικά),[48] in nine chapters (also known asOn First Principles), was considered a fragment of a larger work by Usener in his edition (Theophrastos,Metaphysica, Bonn, 1890), but according to Ross and Fobes in their edition (Theophrastus,Metaphysica, Oxford, 1929), the treatise is complete (p. X) and this opinion is now widely accepted. There is no reason for assigning this work to some other author because it is not noticed inHermippus andAndronicus, especially asNicolaus of Damascus had already mentioned it.[43]
In his treatiseOn Stones (Περὶ λίθων), which would become a source for otherlapidaries until at least theRenaissance,[49] Theophrastus classified rocks and gems based on their behavior when heated, further grouping minerals by common properties, such asamber andmagnetite, which both have the power of attraction.[50][51][52]
Theophrastus describes differentmarbles; mentionscoal, which he says is used for heating by metal-workers; describes the variousmetal ores; and knew thatpumice stones had avolcanic origin. He also deals with precious stones,emeralds,amethysts,onyx,jasper, etc., and describes a variety of "sapphire" that was blue with veins of gold, and thus was presumablylapis lazuli.[50]
He knew thatpearls came fromshellfish, thatcoral came from India, and speaks of thefossilized remains of organic life.[50] He also considers the practical uses of various stones, such as the minerals necessary for the manufacture of glass; for the production of various pigments of paint such asochre; and for the manufacture ofplaster.[50]
Pliny the Elder makes clear references to his use ofOn Stones in hisNaturalis Historia of 77 AD, while updating and making much new information available onminerals himself. Although Pliny's treatment of the subject is more extensive, Theophrastus is more systematic and his work is comparatively free from fable and magic,[53] although he did describelyngurium, a gemstone supposedly formed of the solidified urine of thelynx (the best ones coming from wild males), which featured in many lapidaries until it gradually disappeared from view in the 17th century.[54]It is mistakenly attributed to Theophrastus the first record of pyroelectricity. The misconception arose soon after the discovery of the pyroelectric properties oftourmaline, which made mineralogists of the time associate thelyngurium with it.[55]Lyngurium is described in the work of Theophrastus as being similar toamber, capable of attracting "straws and bits of wood", but without specifying any pyroelectric properties.[56]
The extent to which Theophrastus followed Aristotle's doctrines, or defined them more accurately, or conceived them in a different form, and what additional structures of thought he placed upon them, can only be partially determined because of the loss of so many of his writings.[43] Many of his opinions have to be reconstructed from the works of later writers such asAlexander of Aphrodisias andSimplicius.[57]
Theophrastus seems to have carried out still further thegrammatical foundation oflogic andrhetoric, since in his book on the elements ofspeech, he distinguished the main parts of speech from the subordinate parts, and also direct expressions (κυρία λέξιςkuria lexis) from metaphorical expressions, and dealt with the emotions (πάθηpathe) of speech.[58] He further distinguished a twofold reference of speech (σχίσιςschisis) to things (πράγματαpragmata) and to the hearers, and referred poetry and rhetoric to the latter.[59]
He wrote at length on the unity ofjudgment,[60] on the different kinds of negation,[61] and on the difference between unconditional and conditional necessity.[62] In his doctrine ofsyllogisms he brought forward the proof for the conversion of universal affirmative judgments, differed from Aristotle here and there in the laying down and arranging themodi of the syllogisms,[63] partly in the proof of them,[64] partly in the doctrine of mixture, i.e. of the influence of the modality of the premises upon the modality of the conclusion.[65] Then, in two separate works, he dealt with the reduction of arguments to the syllogistic form and on the resolution of them;[66] and further, with hypothetical conclusions.[67] For the doctrine ofproof,Galen quotes the secondAnalytic of Theophrastus, in conjunction with that of Aristotle, as the best treatises on that doctrine.[68] In differentmonographs he seems to have tried to expand it into a general theory ofscience. To this, too, may have belonged the proposition quoted from hisTopics, that theprinciples of opposites are themselves opposed, and cannot be deduced from one and the same higher genus.[69] For the rest, some minor deviations from the Aristotelian definitions are quoted from theTopica of Theophrastus.[70] Closely connected with this treatise was that upon ambiguous words or ideas,[71] which, without doubt, corresponded to book Ε of Aristotle'sMetaphysics.[43]
Theophrastus introduced his Physics with the proof that all natural existence, being corporeal and composite, requiresprinciples,[72] and first and foremost,motion, as the basis of all change.[73] Denying the substance ofspace, he seems to have regarded it, in opposition to Aristotle, as the mere arrangement and position (taxis andthesis) of bodies.[74]Time he called an accident of motion, without, it seems, viewing it, with Aristotle, as the numerical determinant of motion.[75] He attacked the doctrine of the fourclassical elements and challenged whetherfire could be called a primary element when it appears to be compound, requiring, as it does, another material for its own nutriment.[76]
He departed more widely from Aristotle in his doctrine of motion, since on the one hand he extended it over all categories, and did not limit it to those laid down by Aristotle.[77] He viewed motion, with Aristotle, as an activity, not carrying its own goal in itself (ateles), of that which onlypotentially exists,[78] but he opposed Aristotle's view that motion required a special explanation, and he regarded it as something proper both to nature in general and the celestial system in particular:
Surely, then, if the life in animals does not need explanation or is to be explained only in this way, may it not be the case that in the heavens too, and in the heavenly bodies, movement does not need explanation or is to be explained in a special way?
He recognised no activity without motion,[80] and so referred all activities of thesoul to motion: the desires and emotions to corporeal motion, judgment (kriseis) and contemplation to spiritual motion.[81] The idea of a spirit entirely independent of organic activity, must therefore have appeared to him very doubtful; yet he appears to have contented himself with developing his doubts and difficulties on the point, without positively rejecting it.[82] Other Peripatetics, likeDicaearchus,Aristoxenus, and especiallyStrato, developed further thisnaturalism in Aristotelian doctrine.
Theophrastus seems, generally speaking, where the investigation overstepped the limits of experience, to have preferred to develop the difficulties rather than solve them, as is especially apparent in hisMetaphysics.[43] He was doubtful of Aristotle'steleology and recommended that such ideas be used with caution:
With regard to the view that all things are for the sake of an end and nothing is in vain, the assignation of ends is in general not easy, as it is usually stated to be ... we must set certain limits to purposiveness and to the effort after the best, and not assert it to exist in all cases without qualification.
He did not follow the incessant attempts by Aristotle to refer phenomena to their ultimate foundations, or his attempts to unfold the internal connections between the latter, and between them and phenomena.[43] In antiquity, it was a subject of complaint that Theophrastus had not expressed himself with precision and consistency respectingGod, and had understood it at one time asHeaven, at another an (enlivening) breath (pneuma).[84]
The bust inscribed "Θεόφραστος Μελάντα Ἐρέσιος (Theophrastos Melanta Eresios)"
Theophrastus did not allow a happiness resting merely upon virtue,[85] or, consequently, to hold fast by the unconditional value ofmorality. He subordinated moral requirements to the advantage at least of a friend,[86] and had allowed in prosperity the existence of an influence injurious to them. In later times, fault was found with his expression in theCallisthenes, "life is ruled by fortune, not wisdom" (vitam regit fortuna non sapientia).[87] That in the definition of pleasure, likewise, he did not coincide with Aristotle, seems to be indicated by the titles of two of his writings, one of which dealt with pleasure generally, the other with pleasure as Aristotle had defined it.[23] Although, like his teacher, he preferred contemplative (theoretical), to active (practical) life,[88] he preferred to set the latter free from the restraints of family life, etc. in a manner of which Aristotle would not have approved.[89]
Theophrastus was opposed to eating meat on the grounds that it robbed animals of life and was therefore unjust. Non-human animals, he said, can reason, sense, and feel just as human beings do.[90]
The marbleherm figure with the bearded head of philosopher type, bearing the explicit inscription, must be taken as purely conventional. Unidentified portrait heads did not find a ready market in post-Renaissance Rome.[g] This bust was formerly in the collection of marchese Pietro Massimi at Palazzo Massimi and belonged to marchese L. Massimi at the time the engraving was made. It is now in theVilla Albani, Rome (inv. 1034). The inscribed bust has often been illustrated in engravings[92] and photographs: a photograph of it forms the frontispiece to theLoeb Classical LibraryTheophrastus: Enquiry into Plants vol. I, 1916.André Thevet illustrated[93] in his iconographic compendium,Les vraies Pourtrats et vies des Hommes Illustres (Paris, 1584), an alleged portrait plagiarized from the bust, supporting his fraud with the invented tale that he had obtained it from the library of a Greek in Cyprus and that he had seen a confirming bust in the ruins of Antioch.[94]
Theodor Geisel used the name "Theophrastus" as the given name of his pen-name alter ego,Dr. Seuss.[95]
A board game named Theophrastus was released in 2001. Players compete through a series ofAlchemy experiments in order to become Theophrastus's apprentice.[96]
Recherches sur les plantes. Translated to French by Suzanne Amigues. Paris, Les Belles Lettres. 1988–2006. 5 tomes. Tome 1, Livres I-II. 1988. LVIII-146 p. Tome II, Livres III-IV. 1989. 306 p. Tome III, Livres V-VI. 1993. 212 p. Tome IV, Livres VII-VIII, 2003. 238 p. Tome V, Livres IX. 2006. LXX-400 p. First edition in French. Identifications are up-to-date, and carefully checked with botanists. Greek names with identifications are onPl@ntUse.
Theophrastus' Characters: An Ancient Take on Bad Behavior by James Romm (author), Pamela Mensch (translator), and André Carrilho (illustrator), Callaway Arts & Entertainment, 2018.
1.Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources for His Life, Writings, Thought and Influence (two volumes), edited by William Fortenbaughet al., Leiden: Brill, 1992.
^"Theophrastus is said to have studied first at Eresus under Alcippus, then at Athens under Plato. The latter report is problematic; but if true, it would explain an early association with Aristotle."(Encyclopedia of classical philosophy 1997, p. 552).
^"Aristippus in the fourth book of his treatiseOn Ancient Luxury asserts that he was enamored of Aristotle's son Nicomachus" (Laërtius 1925, § 38).
^"It may we be that we owe to Theophrastus the publication of some at least of his master's voluminous works" (Hort)[full citation needed].
^"He is made indeed to say in the probably spurious Preface to theCharacters that he is writing in his ninety-ninth year; while St.Jerome'sChronicle asserts that he lived to the age of 107" (Hort)[full citation needed].
^Theodore Gaza, a refugee fromThessalonica, was working from a lost Greek manuscript that was different from any others (Hort)[full citation needed].
^"Since 'unknown portraits' were not valued highly, identifying inscriptions were often added to classical portraits by antiquaries and collectors before modern scholarship condemned the practice", notes Eugene Dwyer.[91]
^Earle R. Caley and John F.C. Richards,Theophrastus: On Stones (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, 1956), page 110, line 12 of the commentary: "Watson identifies thelyngounon of Theophrastus with tourmaline, but evidently his opinion is partly based on the attractive properties of heated tourmaline which had recently been discovered. This identification is repeated by various later writers. For example, Dana states thatlyncurium is supposed to be the ancient name for common tourmaline. However, the absence of tourmaline among surviving examples of ancient gems is clearly against this view."
^Earle R. Caley and John F.C. Richards,Theophrastus: On Stones (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, 1956), page 51, paragraph 28 of the original text: "It [smaragdos] is remarkable in its powers, and so is thelyngourion [i.e., lynx-urine stone] … . It has the power of attraction, just as amber has, and some say that it not only attracts straws and bits of wood, but also copper and iron, if the pieces are thin, as Diokles used to explain."
^Ierodiakonou, Katerina (2020),"Theophrastus", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.),The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrievedJuly 7, 2022[permanent dead link]
^Dwyer 1993, p. [page needed] notes Statius pl. xiii; Galle pl. 143; Bellori pl. 38; Gronovius, vol. II p. 92; Visconti, 180–3 pl. xxi, 1–2.
^Thevet, ch. 31;Dwyer 1993, p. 476 notes that it had been illustrated byOrsini 1569 in "the first critical collection of ancient portraiture" (Dwyer 1993, p. 468).
Dwyer, Eugene (September 1993). "André Thevet and Fulvio Orsini: The Beginnings of the Modern Tradition of Classical Portrait Iconography".The Art Bulletin.75 (3):467–480.doi:10.2307/3045969.JSTOR3045969.
"Theophrastus".Encyclopedia of classical philosophy. Greenwood. 1997. p. 552.
Gould, Josiah B. (1970).The Philosophy of Chrysippus: Peasants, Provincials, and Folklore in the 1937 Paris World's Fair. Suny Press. p. 24.ISBN978-0-87395-064-0.
Gould, Josiah (1970b).The Philosophy of Chrysippus – Two Traditional Characterizations. Brill Archive. p. 25.
Grene, Marjorie; Depew, David (2004).The philosophy of biology: an episodic history. Cambridge University Press. p. 11.ISBN978-0-521-64380-1.
Healy, John F. (1999).Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology. Oxford University Press. pp. 17–7.[full citation needed]
Fortenbaugh, W. W., and D. Gutas, eds. 1992.Theophrastus: His Psychological, Doxographical and Scientific Writings. Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities 5. New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Transaction Books.
Mejer, J. 1998. "A Life in Fragments: The Vita Theophrasti." InTheophrastus: Reappraising the Sources. Edited by J. van Ophuijsen and M. van Raalte, 1–28. Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities 8. New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Transaction Books.
Pertsinidis, S. 2018.Theophrastus' Characters: A new introduction. London: Routledge.
Van Raalte, M. 1993.Theophrastus' Metaphysics. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill.
Wöhrle, G. 2019.Theophrast von Eresos. Universalwissenschaftler im Kreis des Aristoteles und Begründer der wissenschaftlichen Botanik. Eine Einführung. Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier.ISBN978-3-86821-796-4.
