It is commonly used in cooking for frying foods, as acondiment, or as asalad dressing. It can also be found in somecosmetics,pharmaceuticals,soaps, andfuels for traditionaloil lamps. It also has additional uses in some religions. The olive is one of three core food plants inMediterranean cuisine, with wheat and grapes. Olive trees have been cultivated around the Mediterranean since the 8th millennium BC.[4]
In 2022, Spain was the world's largest producer, manufacturing 24% of the world's total. Other large producers were Italy, Greece, and Turkey, collectively accounting for 59% of the global market.[5]
The composition of olive oil varies with thecultivar, altitude, time of harvest, and extraction process. It consists mainly ofoleic acid (up to 83%), with smaller amounts of otherfatty acids includinglinoleic acid (up to 21%) andpalmitic acid (up to 20%). Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) is required to have no more than 0.8%free acidity, and is considered to have favorable flavor characteristics.
Olive oil has long been a common ingredient inMediterranean cuisine, includingancient Greek andRoman cuisine. Wild olives, which originated inAsia Minor, were collected byNeolithic people as early as the 8th millennium BC.[6][7] Besides food, olive oil has been used for religiousrituals,medicines, as afuel inoil lamps,soap-making, and skincare application.[8] TheSpartans and other Greeks used oil to rub themselves while exercising in thegymnasia. From its beginnings early in the 7th century BC, the cosmetic use of olive oil quickly spread to all of the Hellenic city-states, together with athletes training in the nude, and lasted close to a thousand years despite its great expense.[9][10] Olive oil was also popular as a form of birth control;Aristotle in hisHistory of Animals recommends applying a mixture of olive oil combined with either oil ofcedar, ointment oflead, or ointment offrankincense to thecervix to prevent pregnancy.[11]
Ancient Greek olive oil production workshop inKlazomenai,Ionia (modern Turkey)
The exact date and location of olive tree domestication are unclear. The modern olive tree may have originated in ancient Persia andMesopotamia and spread to theLevant and later toNorth Africa, though some scholars argue for an Egyptian origin.[12]
The oldest traces of olive oil inItaly date back to the3rd millennium BC.[13] The olive tree reached Greece,Carthage andLibya sometime in the28th century BC, having been spread westward by thePhoenicians.[12] Until around 1500 BC, eastern coastal areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated.[citation needed] Evidence also suggests that olives were being grown inCrete as long ago as 2500 BC. The earliest surviving olive oilamphorae date to 3500 BC (Early Minoan times), though the production of olive oil is assumed to have started before 4000 BC.[14] Olive trees were certainly cultivated by theLate Minoan period (1500 BC) in Crete, and perhaps as early as the Early Minoan.[15] The cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the island's economy, as it did across the Mediterranean.[16] Later, as Greek colonies were established in other parts of the Mediterranean, olive farming was introduced to places likeSpain and continued to spread throughout theRoman Empire.[12]
Olive trees were introduced to theAmericas in the 16th century, when cultivation began in areas with a climate similar to the Mediterranean, such as Chile, Argentina, andCalifornia.[12]
Recentgenetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivars descend from multiple wild populations, but detailed history of domestication is unknown.[17]
Ancient oil press (Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, Bodrum, Turkey)
Archaeological evidence inGalilee shows that by 6000 BC olives were being turned into olive oil[18] and in 4500 BC at a now-submerged prehistoric settlement south ofHaifa.[19]
Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-stateEbla (2600–2240 BC), which were located on the outskirts ofAleppo. Here, some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe the lands of the king and the queen. These belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in theTanakh.[20]
DynasticEgyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria, andCanaan, and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth. Remains of olive oil have been found in jugs over 4,000 years old in a tomb on the island ofNaxos in theAegean Sea.Sinuhe, the Egyptian exile who lived in northern Canaan c.1960 BC, wrote of abundant olive trees.[21] The Minoans used olive oil in religious ceremonies. The oil became a principal product of theMinoan civilization, where it is thought to have represented wealth.[22]
Olive oil was also a major export ofMycenaean Greece (c. 1450–1150 BC).[23][12] Scholars believe the oil was made by a process where olives were placed inwoven mats and squeezed. The oil was collected in vats. This process was known from theBronze Age, was used by the Egyptians, and continued to be used through theHellenistic period.[12] In the Iron Age, settlements in and around theJudaean Lowlands, includingEkron,Timnah, andGezer, emerged as key hubs for olive oil production and commerce.[24] Evidence from theSamaria ostraca, discovered in the capital of theKingdom of Israel, includes a reference to "washed oil," a term believed to refer to virgin olive oil.[24]
Olive crusher(trapetum) in Pompeii (79 AD)
Olive oil may have been produced as early as the Bronze Age in Italy, though this intensified throughout the first millennium BCE and into the Roman period. Some of the earliest evidence of rotary olive mills for the production of olive oil have been found in southern Italy.[25] The importance of olive oil as a commercial commodity increased after the Roman conquest of Egypt, Greece, and Asia Minor, which led to more trade along the Mediterranean. Olive trees were planted throughout the entire Mediterranean basin during the evolution of the Roman Republic and Empire. According to the historianPliny the Elder, Italy had "excellent olive oil at reasonable prices" by the 1st century AD—"the best in the Mediterranean".[citation needed] More sophisticated production techniques such as theolive press andtrapetum (pictured left) became increasingly widespread throughout the Imperial era, and eventually screw presses were commonly used to produce olive oil from Spain to the eastern Mediterranean.[26][12] Many ancient presses still exist in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and some dating to the Roman period are still used today.[27] Productivity was greatly improved by Joseph Graham's development of thehydraulic pressing system in 1795.[12]
The Manufacture of Oil, 16th-century engraving byJost Amman
The olive tree has historically been a symbol of peace between nations. It has played a religious and social role inGreek mythology, especially concerning the city ofAthens, named after the goddessAthena because her gift of an olive tree was held to be more precious than rivalPoseidon's gift of a salt spring.[12]
There are manyolive cultivars, each with a particular flavor, texture, and shelf life that make them more or less suitable for different applications, such as direct human consumption on bread or in salads, indirect consumption in domestic cooking or catering, or industrial uses such as animal feed or engineering applications.[28] During the stages of maturity, olive fruit changes color from green to violet, and then black. Olive oil taste characteristics depend on the stage of ripeness at which olive fruits are collected.[28]
Olive oil is an importantcooking oil in countries surrounding the Mediterranean, and it forms one of the three staple food plants ofMediterranean cuisine, the other two being wheat (as inpasta, bread, andcouscous), and thegrape, used as a dessert fruit and for wine.[29]
Extra virgin olive oil is mostly used raw as a condiment and as an ingredient insalad dressings. If uncompromised by heat, the flavor is stronger. It can also be used forsautéing.
When extra virgin olive oil is heated above 210–216 °C (410–421 °F), depending on its free fatty acid content, the unrefined particles within the oil are burned. This leads to a deteriorated taste. Refined olive oils are suited fordeep frying because of the highersmoke point and milder flavour.[30] Extra virgin oils have a smoke point around 180–215 °C (356–419 °F),[1] with higher-quality oils having a higher smoke point,[31] whereas refined light olive oil has a smoke point up to 230 °C (446 °F).[1] That they can be used for deep frying is contrary to thecommon misconception that there are no olive oils with a smoke point as high as many othervegetable oils. In the misconception, heating at these high temperatures is theorised to impact taste or nutrition.[32][33]
The Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican churches use olive oil for theoil of catechumens (used to bless and strengthen those preparing for baptism) and oil of the sick (used to confer the Sacrament ofanointing of the sick or extreme unction). Olive oil mixed with a perfuming agent such asbalsam isconsecrated bybishops as sacredchrism, which is used to confer the sacrament ofconfirmation (as a symbol of the strengthening of the Holy Spirit), in the rites ofbaptism and theordination ofpriests and bishops, in the consecration ofaltars andchurches, and, traditionally, in the anointing of monarchs at theircoronation.
Eastern Orthodox Christians still use oil lamps in their churches, home prayer corners, and cemeteries. A vigil lamp consists of a votive glass filled with olive oil, floating on a half-inch of water. The glass has a metal holder that hangs from a bracket on the wall or sits on a table. A cork float with a lit wick floats on the oil. To douse the flame, the float is carefully pressed down into the oil. Makeshift oil lamps can easily be made by soaking a cotton ball in olive oil and forming it into a peak. The peak is lit and then burns until all the oil is consumed, whereupon the rest of the cotton burns out. Olive oil is a usual offering to churches and cemeteries.
InJewish observance, olive oil was the only fuel allowed to be used in the seven-branchedmenorah in theMishkan service duringthe Exodus of theTribes of Israel fromEgypt, and later in the permanentTemple in Jerusalem. It was obtained by using only the first drop from a squeezed olive and consecrated for use only in the Temple by the priests and stored in special containers. In modern times, although candles can be used to light themenorah at Hanukkah, oil containers are preferred to imitate the original menorah.[35]
In Judaism of Ancient Israel, olive oil was also used to prepare theholy anointing oil used for priests, kings, prophets, and others.[36]
Olive oil is also a natural and safelubricant, and can be used to lubricate kitchen machinery (grinders, blenders, cookware, etc.). It can also be used for illumination (oil lamps) or as the base for soaps and detergents.[37] Some cosmetics also use olive oil as their base,[38] and it can be used as a substitute for machine oil.[39][40][41] Olive oil has also been used as both solvent and ligand in the synthesis of cadmium selenidequantum dots.[42]
TheRanieri Filo della Torre is an international literary prize for writings about extra virgin olive oil. It yearly honors poetry, fiction, and non-fiction about extra virgin olive oil.
A cold press olive oil machine inIsraelOlive oil mill
Olive oil is produced by grinding olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or chemical means. Green olives usually produce more bitter oil, and overripe olives can produce oil with fermentation defects, so for good olive oil, care is taken to ensure the olives are perfectly ripe. The process is generally as follows:
The olives are ground into paste using large millstones (traditional method), hammer, blade, or disk mill (modern method).
If ground with millstones, the olive paste generally stays under the stones for 30 to 40 minutes. A shorter grinding process may result in a more raw paste that produces less oil and has a less ripe taste; a longer process may increase oxidation of the paste and reduce the flavor. After grinding, the olive paste is spread on fiber disks, which are stacked on top of each other in a column, then placed into the press. Pressure is then applied to the column to separate the vegetal liquid from the paste. This liquid still contains a significant amount of water. Traditionally, the oil was shed from the water by gravity (oil is less dense than water). This very slow separation process has been replaced by centrifugation, which is much faster and more thorough. The centrifuges have one exit for the (heavier) watery part and one for the oil. Olive oil should not contain significant traces of vegetal water, as this accelerates the process of organic degeneration by microorganisms. The separation in smaller oil mills is not always perfect; thus, a small watery deposit containing organic particles can be found at the bottom of oil bottles.
Modern grinders reduce the olives to paste in seconds. After grinding, the paste is stirred slowly for another 20 to 30 minutes in a particular container (malaxation), where the microscopic oil drops aggregate into larger drops, facilitating the mechanical extraction. The paste is then pressed by centrifugation/ the water is thereafter separated from the oil in a second centrifugation as described before.
The oil produced by only physical (mechanical) means as described above is called virgin oil.[43] Extra virgin olive oil is virgin olive oil that satisfies specific high chemical andorganoleptic criteria (low free acidity, no or very little organoleptic defects). A higher grade extra virgin olive oil is mostly dependent on favourable weather conditions; a drought during the flowering phase, for example, can result in a lower quality (virgin) oil. Olive trees produce well every couple of years, so greater harvests occur in alternate years (the year in between is when the tree yields less). However, the quality is still dependent on the weather.
Sometimes the produced oil will be filtered to eliminate remaining solid particles that may reduce the shelf life of the product. Labels may indicate the fact that the oil hasnot been filtered, suggesting a different taste. Freshunfiltered olive oil usually has a slightly cloudy appearance, and is therefore sometimes calledcloudy olive oil. This form of olive oil used to be popular only among small-scale producers but is now becoming "trendy", in line with consumers' demand for products perceived to be less processed. But generally, if not tasted or consumed soon after production, filtered olive oil should be preferred: "Some producers maintain that extra-virgin olive oils do not need filtration but also that filtration is detrimental to oil quality. This point of view should be considered erroneous and probably the result of the improper implementation of this operation. In fact, fine particles that are suspended in a virgin olive oil, even after the most effective centrifugal finishing, contain water and enzymes that may impair oil stability and ruin its sensory profile. ... Filtration makes an extra-virgin olive oil more stable and also more attractive. If the suspended particles are not removed, they slowly agglomerate and flocculate, forming a deposit on the bottom of the storage containers. Such a deposit continues to be at risk of enzymatic spoilage and, in the worst case, of the development of anaerobic micro-organisms with further spoilage and hygienic risk. ... It is ... recommended that filtration be carried out as soon as possible after centrifugal separation and finishing."[44]
In the ancientLevant, three methods were used to produce different grades of olive oil.[45] The finest oil was produced from fully developed and ripe olives harvested solely from the apex of the tree,[46] and lightly pressed, "for what flows from light pressure is very sweet and very thin".[47] The remaining olives are pressed with a heavier weight,[47] and vary in ripeness.[46] Inferior oil is produced from unripe olives that are stored for extended periods until they grow soft or begin to shrivel to become more fit for grinding.[48] Others are left for extended periods in pits in the ground to induce sweating and decay before they are ground.[49] According to theGeoponica, salt and a littlenitre are added when oil is stored.[47]
In countries of the levant, a sharp-tasting green oil was sometimes extracted from unripe olives, known in medieval times asanpeqinon[verification needed] (Ancient Greek:ὀμφάκιον, ὀμφάχινον;Arabic:زيت الأنفاق), being a corruption of theLatin wordsoleum omphacium and used in cuisine and in medicine.[50][51][52] Today, this oil is called "virgin oil" in English.[50]
The remaining semi-solid waste, calledpomace, retains a small quantity (about 5–10%) of oil that cannot be extracted by further pressing, but only with chemical solvents. This is done in specialized chemical plants, not in the oil mills. The resulting oil is namedpomace oil.[53] Even in the ancient Roman period, pomace was commonly used as a domestic and industrial fuel source, burning at a high temperature for longer and with less smoke than charcoal.[54]
Handling of olive waste is an environmental challenge because thewastewater, which amounts to millions of tons (billions of liters) annually in theEuropean Union, has lowbiodegradability, istoxic to plants, and cannot be processed through conventional water treatment systems.[53] Traditionally, olive pomace would be used ascompost or developed as a possiblebiofuel, although these uses introduce concern due to chemicals present in the pomace.[53] A process called "valorization" of olive pomace is under research and development, consisting of additional processing to obtain value-addedbyproducts, such asanimal feed,food additives for human products, andphenolic andfatty acidextracts for potential human use.[53]
In 2022, world production of olive oil was 2.7 milliontonnes, led by Spain with 24% of the total (table). Other major producers were Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Tunisia (table).
Villacarrillo,Jaén,Andalucía, Spain, is a centre of olive oil production. 75% of Spain's olive oil production derives from the region ofAndalucía, particularly withinJaén province which produces 70% of the olive oil in Spain.[55] The world's largest olive oilmill (almazara, in Spanish), capable of processing 2,500 tonnes of olives per day, is in the town ofVillacarrillo, Jaén.[55]
Italian major producers are the regions ofCalabria and, above all,Apulia. Many PDO and PGI extra-virgin olive oils are produced in these regions. Extra-virgin olive oil is also produced inTuscany,[56] in cities includingLucca,Florence, andSiena, which are also included in the association of Città dell'Olio.[57] Italy imports about 65% of Spanish olive oil exports.[58]
Greece has the highest per capita consumption of olive oil worldwide, around 24 liters per year.[59] Consumption in Spain is 15 liters; Italy 13 liters;[59] and Syria, around 3 liters.[60] Canada consumes 1.5 liters and the US 1 liter.[59]
TheInternational Olive Council (IOC) is an intergovernmental organisation of states that produce olives or products derived from olives, such as olive oil. The IOC officially governs 95% of international production and influences the rest. The EU regulates the use of differentprotected designation of origin labels for olive oils.[61]
The United States is not a member of the IOC and is not subject to its authority, but on October 25, 2010, theU.S. Department of Agriculture adopted new voluntary olive oil grading standards that closely parallel those of the IOC, with some adjustments for the characteristics of olives grown in the U.S.[62] U.S. Customs regulations on "country of origin" state that if a non-origin nation is shown on the label, then the real origin must be shown on the same side of the label in letters of comparable size, so as not to mislead the consumer.[63][64] Yet most major U.S. brands continue to put "imported from Italy" on the front label in large letters and other origins on the back in very small print.[65] "In fact, olive oil labeled 'Italian' often comes from Turkey, Tunisia, Morocco, Spain, and Greece."[66] This makes it unclear what percentage of the olive oil is really of Italian origin.
All production begins by crushing or pressing the olive fruit to transform it into olive paste. This paste ismalaxed (slowly churned or mixed) to allow the microscopic oil droplets to agglomerate. The oil is then separated from the watery matter and fruit pulp with the use of a press (traditional method) orcentrifugation (modern method). The residue that remains after pressing or centrifugation can also produce a small amount of oil, calledpomace.
One parameter used to characterise an oil is itsacidity.[67] In this context, "acidity" is notchemical acidity in the sense ofpH, but the percent (measured by weight) offreeoleic acid. Olive oil acidity is a measure of thehydrolysis of the oil's triglycerides: as the oil degrades and becomes oxidized, more fatty acids are freed from theglycerides, increasing the level of free acidity and thereby increasinghydrolytic rancidity.[68] Rancidity not only impacts the taste and color but also its nutritional value.[69]
Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is theperoxide value,[70] which measures the degree to which the oil isoxidized byfree radicals, leading tooxidative rancidity.Phenolic acids present in olive oil also add acidicsensory properties to aroma and flavor.[71]
The grades of oil extracted from the olive fruit can be classified as:
Virgin means the oil was produced by the use of mechanical means only, with no chemical treatment. The termvirgin oil with reference to production method includes all grades of virgin olive oil, includingextra virgin,virgin,ordinary virgin andLampante virgin olive oil products, depending on quality (see below).
Lampante virgin oil is olive oil extracted by virgin (mechanical) methods but not suitable for human consumption without further refining; "lampante" is the attributive form of "lampa", the Italian word for "lamp", referring to the use of such oil inoil lamps. Lampante virgin oil can be used for industrial purposes, or refined (see below) to make it edible.[72]
Refined olive oil is olive oil obtained from any grade of virgin olive oil by refining methods that do not lead to alterations in the initial glyceridic structure. The refining process removes color, odor, and flavour from the olive oil, and leaves behind a very pure form of olive oil that is tasteless, colorless, odorless, and extremely low in free fatty acids. Olive oils sold as the gradesextra virgin olive oil andvirgin olive oil therefore cannot contain any refined oil.[72]
Crude olive pomace oil is the oil obtained by treating olive pomace (the leftover paste after the pressing of olives for virgin olive oils) with solvents or other physical treatments, to the exclusion of oils obtained by re-esterification processes and of any mixture with other kinds of oils. It is then further refined intorefined olive pomace oil and once re-blended with virgin olive oils for taste, is then known asolive pomace oil.[72]
Extra virgin olive oil is the highest grade of virgin olive oil derived bycold mechanical extraction without use ofsolvents or refining methods.[72][74] It contains no more than 0.8%free acidity, and is judged to have a superior taste, having some fruitiness and no defined sensory defects.[75] Extra virgin olive oil accounts for less than 10% of oil in many producing countries; the percentage is far higher in some Mediterranean countries.
The International Olive Council requires the median of the fruity attribute to be higher than zero for a given olive oil in order to meet the criteria of extra virgin olive oil classification.
Virgin olive oil is a lesser grade of virgin oil, withfree acidity of up to 2.0%, and is judged to have a good taste, but may include some sensory defects.
Refined olive oil is virgin oil refined using charcoal and other chemical and physical filters, methods which do not alter the glyceridic structure. It has a free acidity, expressed as oleic acid, of not more than 0.3 grams per 100 grams (0.3%), and its other characteristics correspond to those fixed for this category in this standard. It is obtained by refining virgin oils to eliminate high acidity or organoleptic defects. Oils labeled aspure olive oil orolive oil are primarily refined olive oil, with a small addition of virgin oil for taste.
Olive pomace oil is refined pomace olive oil, often blended with some virgin oil. It is fit for consumption, but may not be described simply asolive oil. It has a more neutral flavor than pure or virgin olive oil, making it less desirable to users concerned with flavor; however, it has the same fat composition as regular olive oil, giving it the same health benefits. It also has a high smoke point, and consequently is widely used in restaurants and home cooking in some countries.
The United States is not a member of the IOC and does not implement its grades, but on October 25, 2010, theUnited States Department of Agriculture (USDA) established Standards for Grades of Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil which closely parallel the IOC standards:[76][77]
U.S. extra virgin olive oil for oil with excellent flavor and odor andfree fatty acid content of not more than 0.8 g per 100 g (0.8%);
U.S. virgin olive oil for oil with reasonably good flavor and odor and free fatty acid content of not more than 2 g per 100 g (2%);
U.S. virgin olive oil Not Fit For Human Consumption Without Further Processing is a virgin (mechanically-extracted) olive oil of poor flavor and odor, equivalent to the IOC'slampante oil;
U.S. olive oil is a mixture of virgin and refined oils;
U.S. refined olive oil is an oil made from refined oils with some restrictions on the processing.
These grades are voluntary. Certification is available, for a fee, from the USDA.[77]
In 2014, California adopted a set of olive oil standards for olive oil made from California-grown olives. The California Department of Food and Agriculture Grade and Labeling Standards for Olive Oil, Refined-Olive Oil, and Olive-Pomace Oil are mandatory for producers of more than 5,000gallons of California olive oil. This joins other official state, federal, and international olive oil standards.[78]
Several olive producer associations, such as theNorth American Olive Oil Association and theCalifornia Olive Oil Council, also offer grading and certification within the United States.[79][80] Oleologist Nicholas Coleman suggests that the California Olive Oil Council certification is the most stringent of the voluntary grading schemes in the United States.[81]
Country of origin can be established by one or two-letter country codes printed on the bottle or label. Country codes include I=Italy, GR=Greece, E=Spain, TU=Tunisia, MA=Morocco, CL=Chile, AG=Argentina, AU=Australia.
Different names for olive oil indicate the degree of processing the oil has undergone as well as the quality of the oil. Extra virgin olive oil is the highest grade available, followed by virgin olive oil. The word "virgin" indicates that the olives have been pressed to extract the oil; no heat or chemicals have been used during the extraction process, and the oil is pure and unrefined. Virgin olive oils contain the highest levels ofpolyphenols, antioxidants that have been linked with better health.[82]
Olive Oil, which is sometimes denoted as being "Made from refined and virgin olive oils" is a blend of refined olive oil with a virgin grade of olive oil.[72]Pure,Classic,Light andExtra-Light are terms introduced by manufacturers in countries that are non-traditional consumers of olive oil for these products to indicate both their composition of being only 100% olive oil, and also the varying strength of taste to consumers. Contrary to a common consumer belief, they do not have fewer calories than extra virgin oil, as implied by the names.[83]
Cold pressed orCold extraction means "that the oil was not heated over a certain temperature (usually 27 °C (80 °F)) during processing, thus retaining more nutrients and undergoing less degradation".[84] The difference betweenCold Extraction andCold Pressed is regulated in Europe, where the use of a centrifuge, the modern method of extraction for large quantities, must be labelled asCold Extracted, while only a physically pressed olive oil may be labelled asCold Pressed. In many parts of the world, such as Australia, producers using centrifugal extraction still label their products asCold Pressed.
First cold pressed means "that the fruit of the olive was crushed exactly one time – i.e., thefirst press. Thecold refers to the temperature range of the fruit at the time it is crushed".[85] In Calabria (Italy) the olives are collected in October. In regions like Tuscany or Liguria, the olives collected in November and ground, often at night, are too cold to be processed efficiently without heating. The paste is regularly heated above the environmental temperatures, which may be as low as 10–15 °C, to extract the oil efficiently with only physical means. Olives pressed in warm regions like Southern Italy or Northern Africa may be pressed at significantly higher temperatures, although not heated. While it is important that the pressing temperatures be as low as possible (generally below 25 °C) there is no international reliable definition of "cold pressed". Furthermore, there is no "second" press of virgin oil, so the term "first press" means only that the oil was produced in a press vs. other possible methods.
The label may indicate that the oil was bottled or packed in a stated country. This does not necessarily mean that the oil was produced there. The origin of the oil may sometimes be marked elsewhere on the label; it may be a mixture of oils from multiple countries.[65]
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration permitted a claim on olive oil labels stating: "Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about two tablespoons (23 g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease."[87]
There have been allegations, particularly in Italy and Spain, that regulation can be sometimes lax and corrupt.[88] Major shippers are claimed to routinely adulterate olive oil so that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra virgin" in Italy actually meets the specification.[89] In some cases,colza oil (extracted fromrapeseed) with added color and flavor has been labeled and sold as olive oil.[90] This extensive fraud prompted the Italian government to mandate a new labeling law in 2007 for companies selling olive oil, under which every bottle of Italian olive oil would have to declare the farm and press on which it was produced, as well as display a precise breakdown of the oils used, for blended oils.[91] In February 2008, however, EU officials took issue with the new law, stating that under EU rules such labeling should be voluntary rather than compulsory.[90] Under EU rules, olive oil may be sold as Italian even if it only contains a small amount of Italian oil.[91]
Extra-virgin olive oil has strict requirements and is checked for "sensory defects" that include: rancid, fusty, musty, winey (vinegary), and muddy sediment. These defects can occur for different reasons. The most common are:
Raw material (olives) infected or battered
Inadequate harvest, with contact between the olives and soil[92]
In March 2008, 400 Italian police officers conducted Operation Golden Oil, arresting 23 people and confiscating 85 farms after an investigation revealed a large-scale scheme to relabel oils from other Mediterranean nations as Italian.[93] In April 2008, another operation impounded seven olive oil plants and arrested 40 people in nine provinces of northern and southern Italy for addingchlorophyll tosunflower andsoya bean oil and selling it as extra virgin olive oil, both in Italy and abroad; 25,000 liters of the fake oil were seized and prevented from being exported.[94]
On March 15, 2011, the prosecutor's office in Florence, Italy, working in conjunction with the forestry department, indicted two managers and an officer of Carapelli, one of the brands of the Spanish company Grupo SOS (which recently changed its name to Deoleo). The charges involved falsified documents and food fraud. Carapelli lawyer Neri Pinucci said the company was not worried about the charges and that "the case is based on an irregularity in the documents."[95]
In February 2012, Spanish authorities investigated an international olive oil fraud in which palm, avocado, sunflower, and other cheaper oils were passed off as Italian olive oil. Police said the oils were blended in an industrial biodiesel plant and adulterated in a way to hide markers that would have revealed their true nature. The oils were not toxic and posed no health risk, according to a statement by theGuardia Civil. Nineteen people were arrested following the year-long joint probe by the police and Spanish tax authorities, as part of Operation Lucerna.[96]
Using tiny print to state the origin of blended oil is used as a legal loophole by manufacturers of adulterated and mixed olive oil.[97]
Journalist Tom Mueller has investigated crime and adulteration in the olive oil business, publishing the article "Slippery Business" inNew Yorker magazine,[89] followed by the 2011 bookExtra Virginity. On 3 January 2016Bill Whitaker presented a program on CBS News including interviews with Mueller and with Italian authorities.[98][99] It was reported that in the previous month, 5,000 tons of adulterated olive oil had been sold in Italy, and thatorganised crime was heavily involved—the term "Agrimafia" was used. The point was made by Mueller that the profit margin on adulterated olive oil was three times that on the illegal narcotic drugcocaine. He said that over 50% of olive oil sold in Italy was adulterated, as was 75–80% of that sold in the US. Whitaker reported that three samples of "extra virgin olive oil" had been bought in a US supermarket and tested; two of the three samples did not meet the required standard, and one of them—from a top-selling US brand—was exceptionally poor.
In early February 2017, theCarabinieri police arrested 33 suspects in the Calabrian mafia'sPiromalli 'ndrina ('Ndrangheta), which was allegedly exporting fake extra virgin olive oil to the U.S.; the product was actually inexpensive olive pomace oil fraudulently labeled.[100] Less than a year earlier, the American television program60 Minutes had warned that "the olive oil business has been corrupted by the Mafia" and that "Agromafia" was a 16 billiondollar per year enterprise. A Carabinieri investigator interviewed on the program said that "olive oil fraud has gone on for the better part of four millennia" but today, it's particularly "easy for the bad guys to either introduce adulterated olive oils or mix in lower quality olive oils with extra-virgin olive oil".[101] Weeks later, a report byForbes magazine stated that "it's reliably reported that 80% of the Italian olive oil on the [US] market is fraudulent" and that "a massive olive oil scandal is being uncovered in Southern Italy (Puglia, Umbria and Campania)".[102]
In July 2024, the European Union reported a significant increase in olive oil fraud and mislabeling cases. The European Commission's annual report on food fraud revealed that olive oil remained one of the most frequently adulterated food products, with incidents reaching a record high.[103]
Mislabeling lower-grade oils as extra virgin olive oil
Diluting olive oil with cheaper vegetable oils
Falsely claiming EU origin for non-EU oils
These fraudulent practices not only deceive consumers but also undermine the reputation of legitimate producers, particularly those from traditional olive-growing regions in the Mediterranean.[103]
Higher production costs for honest producers due to increased compliance requirements
Potential market share loss for authentic extra virgin olive oil as cheaper, adulterated products flood the market
Growing consumer skepticism about olive oil quality claims
Industry experts emphasize the importance of supporting reputable producers and urge consumers to be more vigilant when purchasing olive oil, particularly when prices seem unusually low for claimed quality.[103]
In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), olive oil supplies 884kcals offood energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of theDaily Value, DV) ofvitamin E (96% DV) andvitamin K (57% DV) (table).
Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about 2 tbsp. (23 g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the monounsaturated fat in olive oil. To achieve this possible benefit, olive oil is to replace a similar amount of saturated fat and not increase the overall number of calories consumed in a day.
In a review by theEuropean Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in 2011, health claims on olive oil were approved for protection by itspolyphenols againstoxidation of blood lipids,[144] and for maintenance of normal bloodLDL-cholesterol levels by replacing saturated fats in the diet witholeic acid.[145] (See also: Commission Regulation (EU) 432/2012 of 16 May 2012).[146] Despite its approval, the EFSA has noted that a definitivecause-and-effect relationship has not been adequately established for consumption of olive oil and maintaining normal (fasting) blood concentrations oftriglycerides, normal bloodHDL-cholesterol concentrations, and normalblood glucose concentrations.[147]
A 2014 meta-analysis concluded that increased consumption of olive oil was associated with reduced risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular events andstroke, while monounsaturated fatty acids of mixed animal and plant origin showed no significant effects.[148] Another meta-analysis in 2018 found high-polyphenol olive oil intake was associated with improved measures of total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol,malondialdehyde, and oxidized LDL when compared to low-polyphenol olive oils, although it recommended longer studies, and more investigation of non-Mediterranean populations.[149]
^Kennell, Nigel M. "Most Necessary for the Bodies of Men: Olive Oil and its By-products in the Later Greek Gymnasium" in Mark Joyal (ed.),In Altum: Seventy-Five Years of Classical Studies in Newfoundland, 2001; popis pp. 119–133.
^Himes, Norman E. (1963).The Medical History of Contraception. Gamut Press. pp. 86–87.
^Foley, B. P.; Hansson, M. C.; Kourkoumelis, D. P.; & Theodoulou, T. A. (2012). "Aspects of ancient Greek trade re-evaluated with amphora DNA evidence".Journal of Archaeological Science, 39(2), 389-398.
^Riley, F. R. "Olive Oil Production on Bronze Age Crete: Nutritional properties, Processing methods, and Storage life of Minoan olive oil".Oxford Journal of Archaeology21:1:63–75 (2002).
^Besnarda, Guillaume; André Bervillé, "Multiple origins for Mediterranean olive (Olea europaea L. ssp.europaea) based upon mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms",Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences – Series III – Sciences de la Vie323:2:173–181 (February 2000); Breton, Catherine; Michel Tersac and André Bervillé, "Genetic diversity and gene flow between the wild olive (oleaster,Olea europaea L.) and the olive: several Plio-Pleistocene refuge zones in the Mediterranean basin suggested by simple sequence repeats analysis",Journal of Biogeography33:11:1916 (November 2006).
^Galili, Ehud; Stanley, Daniel Jean; Sharvit, Jacob; Weinstein-Evron, Mina (December 1997). "Evidence for Earliest Olive-Oil Production in Submerged Settlements off the Carmel Coast, Israel".Journal of Archaeological Science.24 (12):1141–1150.Bibcode:1997JArSc..24.1141G.doi:10.1006/jasc.1997.0193.
^Gardiner, Alan H. (1916).Notes on the Story of Sinuhe. Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion.Archived from the original on April 2, 2019. RetrievedDecember 28, 2008.
^Castleden, Rodney (2005).The Mycenaeans. London and New York: Routledge. p. 107.ISBN978-0-415-36336-5.Archived from the original on January 15, 2023. RetrievedApril 3, 2016.Huge quantities of olive oil were produced and it must have been a major source of wealth. The simple fact that southern Greece is far more suitable climatically for olive production may explain why the Mycenaean civilization made far greater advances in the south than in the north. The oil had a variety of uses, in cooking, as a dressing, as soap, as lamp oil, and as a base for manufacturing unguents.
^abShafer-Elliott, Cynthia (2022), Fu, Janling; Shafer-Elliott, Cynthia; Meyers, Carol (eds.),"Fruits, Nuts, Vegetables, and Legumes",T&T Clark Handbook of Food in the Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel, T&T Clark Handbooks (1 ed.), London: T&T Clark, p. 144,ISBN978-0-567-67982-6, retrievedJuly 27, 2025{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
^Blázquez, J. M. (October 1992). "The Latest Work on the Export of Baetican Olive Oil to Rome and the Army".Greece and Rome.39 (2):173–188.doi:10.1017/S0017383500024153.
^Peri, Claudio, ed. (2014).The extra virgin olive oil handbook. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. p. 356.ISBN9781118460436.OCLC861120215.
^abAmar, Z. (2015).Flora and Fauna in Maimonides' Teachings (in Hebrew). Kfar Darom. p. 73.OCLC783455868.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Amar, Z. (2015).Flora and Fauna in Maimonides' Teachings (in Hebrew). Kfar Darom. p. 74.OCLC783455868.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) s.v.MishnahTohoroth 9:1 (Maimonides' commentary)
^abFrankel, Rafael (1994). "Ancient Oil Mills and Presses in the Land of Israel". In Etan Ayalon (ed.).History and Technology of Olive Oil in the Holy Land. Translated by Jacobson, Jay C. Tel Aviv, Israel: Eretz Israel Museum and Oléarus editions. p. 23.ISBN0-917526-06-6.
^Mukaddasi (1906) [3rd edition 1967]. de Goeje, M. J. (ed.).Kitāb Aḥsan at-taqāsīm fī maʻrifat al-aqālīm [The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions] (in Arabic). Leiden: Brill. p. 181.OCLC313566614.[clarification needed]
^Amar, Z.; Serri, Yaron (2004).The Land of Israel and Syria as Described by al-Tamimi – Jerusalem Physician of the 10th Century (in Hebrew). Ramat-Gan. p. 78.ISBN965-226-252-8.OCLC607157392.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Cf.Babylonian Talmud,Menahot 86a, where it says that the olives used to produce this kind of oil had not reached one-third of their natural stage of ripeness, and that it was used principally as adepilatory and to flavor meat.
^abcdefBoskou, Dimitrios; Blekas, Georgios; Tsimidou, Maria (April 2006). "4 Olive Oil Composition".Olive Oil. Taylor & Francis. p. 42.ISBN978-1-893997-88-2. RetrievedMarch 5, 2022.
^abBeltrán, Gabriel; del Rio, Carmen; Sánchez, Sebastián; Martínez, Leopoldo (June 2004). "Influence of Harvest Date and Crop Yield on the Fatty Acid Composition of Virgin Olive Oils from Cv. Picual".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.52 (11):3434–3440.Bibcode:2004JAFC...52.3434B.doi:10.1021/jf049894n.PMID15161211.
^abc"FoodData Central". United States Department of Agriculture. April 1, 2019. All values in this table are from this database unless otherwise cited or when italicized as the simple arithmetic sum of other component columns.
^"Brazil nut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. RetrievedSeptember 6, 2017.
^abcdKatragadda, Harinageswara Rao; Fullana, Andrés; Sidhu, Sukh; Carbonell-Barrachina, Ángel A. (May 2010). "Emissions of volatile aldehydes from heated cooking oils".Food Chemistry.120 (1):59–65.doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.070.
^"Canola oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. RetrievedSeptember 6, 2017.
^"Coconut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. RetrievedSeptember 6, 2017.
^"Palm oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. RetrievedSeptember 6, 2017.
^Wagner KH, Kamal-Eldin A, Elmadfa I (2004). "Gamma-tocopherol--an underestimated vitamin?".Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism.48 (3):169–88.doi:10.1159/000079555.PMID15256801.S2CID24827255.
^Owen, Robert W; Mier, Walter; Giacosa, Attilio; Hull, William E; Spiegelhalder, Bertold; Bartsch, Helmut (July 2000). "Identification of Lignans as Major Components in the Phenolic Fraction of Olive Oil".Clinical Chemistry.46 (7):976–988.doi:10.1093/clinchem/46.7.976.PMID10894841.
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