Old Prussian is anextinctWest Baltic language belonging to theBaltic branch of theIndo-European languages, which was once spoken by theOld Prussians, theBaltic peoples of thePrussian region. The language is called Old Prussian to avoid confusion with the German dialects ofLow Prussian andHigh Prussian and with the adjectivePrussian as it relates to the later German state. Old Prussian began to be written down in theLatin alphabet in about the 13th century, and a small amount of literature in the language survives. In modern times, there has been a revival movement of Old Prussian, and there are families which use Old Prussian as their first language.[5]: 4–8
Old Prussian hadloanwords from Slavic languages (e.g., Old Prussiancurtis [kurtis] 'hound', like Lithuaniankùrtas and Latviankur̃ts, cognate with Slavic (compareUkrainian:хорт,khort;Polish:chart;Czech:chrt)), as well as a few borrowings fromGermanic, including fromGothic (e.g., Old Prussianylo 'awl' as with Lithuanianýla, Latvianīlens) and fromScandinavian languages.[11]
In addition to Prussia proper, the original territory of the Old Prussians may have included eastern parts ofPomerelia (some parts of the region east of theVistula River). The language may also have been spoken much further east and south in what becamePolesia and part ofPodlasie, before conquests byRus andPoles starting in the 10th century and theGerman colonisation of the area starting in the 12th century.[8]: 23 [19]: 324
With the conquest of the Old Prussian territory by theTeutonic Knights in the 13th century, and the subsequent influx of Polish, Lithuanian and especially German speakers, Old Prussian experienced a 400-year-long decline as an "oppressed language of an oppressed population".[20]: VII Groups of people from Germany,Poland,[21]: 115Lithuania,Scotland,[22]England,[23] andAustria (seeSalzburg Protestants) found refuge in Prussia during theProtestant Reformation and thereafter.[5]: 1 Old Prussian ceased to be spoken probably around the beginning of the 18th century,[4] because many of its remaining speakers died in thefamines and thebubonic plague outbreak which harrowed theEast Prussian countryside and towns from 1709 until 1711.[24]
The Prussian post-folk band Kellan performing at the Baltic culture festivalMėnuo Juodaragis in Lithuania
In the 1980s, the linguistsVladimir Toporov andVytautas Mažiulis started reconstructing the Prussian language as a scientific project and a humanitarian gesture. Some enthusiasts thereafter began torevive the language based on their reconstruction.[5]: 3–4
Most current speakers live in Germany, Poland, Lithuania andKaliningrad (Russia). Additionally, a few children are native in Revived Prussian.[5]: 4–8 [25]
Today, there are websites, online dictionaries, learning apps and games for Revived Prussian, and one children's book –Antoine de Saint-Exupéry'sThe Little Prince – was translated into Revived Prussian by Piotr Szatkowski (Pīteris Šātkis) and published by the Prusaspirā Society in 2015.[5]: 4–7 [25] Moreover, some bands use Revived Prussian, most notably in the Kaliningrad Oblast by the bandsRomowe Rikoito,[26] Kellan[27] and Āustras Laīwan, as well as in Lithuania byKūlgrinda on their 2005 albumPrūsų Giesmės ('Prussian Hymns'),[28] and Latvia by Rasa Ensemble in 1988[29] andValdis Muktupāvels in his 2005oratorio "Pārcēlātājs Pontifex" featuring several parts sung in Prussian.[30]
The Elbing Vocabulary and the Catechisms display systematical differences in phonology, vocabulary and grammar. Some scholars postulate that this is due to them being recordings of different dialects:[20]: XXI–XXII Pomesanian[10]: 25–89 and Sambian.[10]: 90–220
Phonetical distinctions are: Pom.ē is Samb.ī (sweta- : swīta- 'world'); Pom.ō, Samb.ū after a labial (mōthe [mōte] : mūti 'mother') or Pom.ō, Samb.ā (tōwis : tāws 'father';brōte : brāti 'brother'), which influences the nominative suffixes of feminine ā-stems (crauyō [kraujō] : krawia 'blood'). The nominative suffixes of the masculine o-stems are weakened to-is in Pomesanian; in Sambian they are syncopated (deywis : deiws 'god').
Vocabulary differences encompass Pom.smoy [zmoy] (cf. Lith.žmuo), Samb.wijrs 'man'; Pom.wayklis, Samb.soūns 'son' and Pom.samien, Samb.laucks [lauks] 'field'.The neuter gender is more often found in Pomesianan than in Sambian.
Others argue that the Catechisms are written in a Yatvingized Prussian. The differences noted above could therefore be explained as being features of a different West Baltic languageYatvingian/Sudovian.[31]
^abThe sounds/f/ and/h/ also existed in Old Prussian, but are disputed as to whether they are native to the language as they are non-native to Lithuanian and Latvian.[32]: 28
^abcdPalato-alveolar fricatives[ʃ,ʒ] are recorded as well, usually with theGerman orthography-style⟨sch⟩.[32]: 27 They were allophones of/s/ or/z/ in Pomesanian, but distinct phonemes in Sambian.[10]: 101
There is said to have existed palatalization (i.e.[tʲ],[dʲ]) among nearly all of the consonant sounds except for/j/, and possibly for/ʃ/ and/ʒ/.[32]: 26 [19]: 348 Whether or not the palatalization was phonemic remains unclear.[10]: 62
Apart from the palatalizations Proto-Baltic consonants were almost completely preserved. The only changes postulated are turning Proto-Baltic/ʃ,ʒ/ into Prussian/s,z/ and subsequently changing Proto-Baltic/sj/ into/ʃ/.[10]: 61–62 [19]: 348–349
Most scholars agree that there are two numbers, singular and plural, in Old Prussian,[36]: 41–42, 47 [37]: 40 [19]: 353 while some consider remnants ofdual number identifiable in the existent corpus.[38][39][35]: 198
There is no consensus on the number ofcases that Old Prussian had, and at least four can be determined with certainty: nominative, genitive, accusative and dative, with differentsuffixes.[35]: 171–197 [19]: 356 [37]: 40 Most scholars agree, that there are traces of avocative case, such as in the phraseO Deiwe Rikijs 'O God the Lord', reflecting the inheritedPIE vocative ending*-e,[35]: 251 [10]: 109 differing from nominative forms in o-stem nouns only.[19]: 356
Some scholars find instrumental forms,[35]: 197 while the traditional view is that no instrumental case existed in Old Prussian.[19]: 356 There could be some locative forms, e.g.bītai ('in the evening').[19]: 356 [40]
Declensional classes werea-stems (also calledo-stems),(i)ja-stems (also called(i)jo-stems),ā-stems (feminine),ē-stems (feminine),i-stems,u-stems, and consonant-stems.[10]: 66–80 [37]: 41–62 [19]: 357 [32]: 42–43 Some also listī/jā-stems as a separate stem,[10]: 66–80 [37]: 41–62 while others includejā-stems intoā-stems and do not mentionī-stems at all.[32]: 37
When it comes to verbal morphology present, future and past tense are attested, as well asoptative forms (used with imperative or permissive forms of verbs), infinitive, and four participles (active/passive present/past).[35]: 211–233
The orthography varies depending on the author.As the authors of many sources were themselves not proficient in Old Prussian, they wrote the words as they heard them using the orthographical conventions of their mother tongue. For example, the use of⟨s⟩ for both/s/ and/z/ is based on German orthography.Additionally, the writers misunderstood some phonemes and, when copying manuscripts, they added further mistakes.[10]: 63 [11][19]: 337
There was Prussian toponomy and hydronomy within the territory of (Baltic) Prussia. Georg Gerullis undertook the first basic study of these names inDie altpreußischen Ortsnamen ('The Old Prussian Place-names'), written and published with the help of Walter de Gruyter, in 1922.[15]
Further sources for Prussian words are Vernacularisms in the German dialects of East and West Prussia, as well as words of Old Curonian origin in Latvian and West-Baltic vernacularisms in Lithuanian and Belarusian.[2]: 4 [42]
Two Prussian vocabularies are known. The older one bySimon Grunau (Simon Grunovius), a historian of theTeutonic Knights, encompasses 100 words (in strongly varying versions). He also recorded an expression:sta nossen rickie, nossen rickie ('This (is) our lord, our lord'). The vocabulary is part of thePreussische Chronik writtenc. 1517–1526.[20]: XXV–XXVI
The second one is the so-called Elbing Vocabulary, which consists of 802 thematically sorted words and their German equivalents. Peter Holcwesscher fromMarienburg copied the manuscript around 1400; the original dates from the beginning of the 14th or the end of the 13th century. It was found in 1825 by Fr Neumann among other manuscripts acquired by him from the heritage of the Elbing merchant A. Grübnau; it was thus dubbed theCodex Neumannianus.[2]: 7-8 [32]: 4
There are separate words found in various historical documents.[2]: 4
The following fragments are commonly thought of as Prussian, but are probably actuallyLithuanian (at least the adage, however, has been argued to be genuinely West Baltic, only an otherwise unattested dialect[43]):
An adage of 1583,Dewes does dantes, Dewes does geitka: the formdoes in the second instance corresponds to Lithuanian future tenseduos ('will give')
Vytautas Mažiulis lists another few fragmentary texts recorded in several versions by Hieronymus Maletius in theSudovian Book in the middle of the 16th century. Palmaitis regards them as Sudovian proper.[2]: 7; 437
Beigeite beygeyte peckolle ('Run, run, devils!')
Kails naussen gnigethe ('Hello our friend!')
Kails poskails ains par antres – a drinking toast, reconstructed asKaīls pas kaīls, aīns per āntran ('A cheer for a cheer, a tit for tat', literally: 'A healthy one after a healthy one, one after another!')
Kellewesze perioth, Kellewesze perioth ('A carter drives here, a carter drives here!')
Ocho moy myle schwante panicke – also recorded asO hoho Moi mile swente Pannike,O ho hu Mey mile swenthe paniko,O mues miles schwante Panick ('Oh my dear holy fire!')
In addition to the texts listed beneath, there are several colophons written by Prussian scriptors who worked in Prague and in the court of Lithuanian dukeButautas Kęstutaitis.
Cheers, Sir! You are no longer a good little comrade if you want to drink (but) do not want to give a penny!
This jocular inscription was most probably made by a Prussian student studying inPrague (Charles University); found by Stephen McCluskey (1974) in manuscript MS F.V.2 (book of physicsQuestiones super Meteororum byNicholas Oresme), fol. 63r, stored in theBasel University library.
The longest texts preserved in Old Prussian are three Catechisms printed inKönigsberg. The first two, both from 1545, consist of only six pages of text in Old Prussian – the second one being a correction of the first. The third catechism, from 1561, orEnchiridion, consists of 132 pages of text, and is a translation ofLuther's Small Catechism by a German cleric called Abel Will, with his Prussian assistant Paul Megott. Will himself knew little or no Old Prussian, and his Prussian interpreter was probably illiterate, but according to Will spoke Old Prussian quite well. The text itself is mainly a word-for-word translation, and Will phonetically recorded Megott's oral translation. Because of this, theEnchiridion exhibits many irregularities, such as the lack of case agreement in phrases involving anarticle and anoun, which followed word-for-word German originals as opposed to native Old Prussian syntax.[20]: XXVII [2]: 8–9
The "Trace of Crete" is a short poem added by a Baltic writer inChania to a manuscript of the Logica Parva byPaul of Venice.[45]
Atonaige maian meilan am ne wede maianwargan Thaure ne ſtonais po pieſ pievſſenabdolenai galei ragai Stonais po leipen zaidiant acha peda bete medde
Translation:
Stand under the May tree willingly/dear – the May tree does not bring you to misery Aurochs, do not stand under the pine tree – horns bring death, Stand under the blooming linden tree – the bee brings honey here.
Lord's Prayer in Old Prussian (from the so-called "1st Catechism")[2]: 118, 122 [36]: 4
Thawe nuson kas tu asse andangon. Swintits wirst twais emmens. Pergeis twais laeims. Twais quaits audasseisin na semmey, key audangon. Nusan deininan geittin deis numons schindeinan. Bha atwerpeis numans nuson auschantins, kay mas atwerpimay nuson auschautenikamans. Bha ny wedais mans enperbandan. Sclait is rankeis mans assa wargan. Amen
Nossen thewes cur tu es delbes sweytz gischer tho wes wardes penag munis tholbe mystlastilbi tolpes prahes girkade delbeszisne tade symmes semmes worsunii dodi mommys an nosse igdemas mayse unde gaytkas pames mumys nusze noszeginu cademes pametam musen prettane kans newede munis lawnā padomā swalbadi munis nowusse loyne Jhesus amen.
Lord's Prayer after Prätorius (Curonian)[47]: 703 [a]
Thewes nossen, cur tu es Debbes, Schwisch gesger thowes Wardes; Pena mynis thowe Wiswalstybe; Toppes Patres gir iat Delbeszisne, tade tymnes senjnes Worsinny; Annosse igdenas Mayse dodi mums szon Dien; Pamutale mums musu Noschegun, kademas pametan nousson Pyktainekans; No wede numus panam Paadomam; Swalbadi names ne wust Tayne.
Lord's Prayer in Lithuanian dialect ofInsterburg (Prediger Hennig)[47]: 707
Tewe musu, kurs essi Danguje, Buk szwenczamas Wardas tawo, Ateik tawo Karalijste; Buk tawo Walle kaip Danguje, taip ir an Zemes; Duna musu dieniszka duk mums ir sze Diena; Atleisk mums musu Kaltes, kaip mes atoeidzjam sawo Kaltiems; Ne wesk mus Pagundima; Bet gelbek mus nu Pikto.
Lord's Prayer in Lithuanian dialect ofNadruvia, corrupted (Simon Praetorius)[47]: 708
Tiewe musu, kursa tu essi Debsissa, Szwints tiest taws Wards; Akeik mums twa Walstybe; Tawas Praats buk kaip Debbesissa taibant wirszu Sjemes; Musu dieniszka May e duk mums ir szen Dienan; Atmesk mums musu Griekus, kaip mes pammetam musi Pardokonteimus; Ne te wedde mus Baidykle; Bet te passarge mus mi wissa Louna (Pikta)
^Adelung simply says "der Prätorius". This is most likelyMatthäus Prätorius; because two pages earlier Adelung refers with approval to the writings of both Hartknoch and Prätorius,[47]: 701 andChristoph Hartknoch worked with Matthäus Prätorius.
^abcdefghijkRinkevičius, Vytautas (2015).Prūsistikos pagrindai [Fundamentals of Prussian linguistics] (in Lithuanian). Vilnius: Vilniaus universitetas.ISBN978-609-417-101-7.
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^Kownatzki, Hermann (1977) [unknown]."Elbing als ehemaliger englischer Handelsplatz" [Elbing as a former English trading post](PDF). Translated by Baumfelder, W. Magistrat der Stadt Elbing. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 30 July 2007. Retrieved18 February 2007.
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G. Gerullis, Zur Sprache der Sudauer-Jadwinger, in Festschrift A. Bezzenberger, Göttingen 1927
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L. Kilian: Zu Herkunft und Sprache der Prußen Wörterbuch Deutsch–Prußisch, Bonn 1980
(In Lithuanian) V. Mažiulis, Prūsų kalbos paminklai, Vilnius, t. I 1966, t. II 1981.
J. Endzelīns, Senprūšu valoda. – Gr. Darbu izlase, IV sēj., 2. daļa, Rīga, 1982. 9.-351. lpp.
V. Mažiulis, Prūsų kalbos etimologijos žodynas, Vilnius, t. I-IV, 1988–1997.
M. Biolik, Zuflüsse zur Ostsee zwischen unterer Weichsel und Pregel, Stuttgart, 1989.
R. Przybytek, Ortsnamen baltischer Herkunft im südlichen Teil Ostpreussens, Stuttgart, 1993.
R. Przybytek, Hydronymia Europaea, Ortsnamen baltischer Herkunft im südlichen Teil Ostpreußens, Stuttgart 1993
M. Biolik, Die Namen der stehenden Gewässer im Zuflussgebiet des Pregel, Stuttgart, 1993.
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Italics indicateextinct languages· Languages between parentheses arevarieties of the language on their left· Asterisk (*) indicatesdialects occasionally classified as languages· Question mark (?) indicates disputed classification.
