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| Old Irish | |
|---|---|
| Old Gaelic | |
| Goídelcᚌᚑᚔᚇᚓᚂᚉ | |
| Pronunciation | [ˈɡoːi̯ðʲelɡ] |
| Region | Ireland,Isle of Man,Wales,Scotland,Devon,Cornwall |
| Era | 6th–10th century; evolved intoMiddle Irish by around the 10th century |
Early form | |
| Latin,Ogham | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-2 | sga |
| ISO 639-3 | sga |
| Glottolog | oldi1246 |
| Linguasphere | 50-AAA-ad |
| This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. | |
Old Irish, also calledOld Gaelic[1][2][3] (Old Irish:Goídelc,Ogham script: ᚌᚑᚔᚇᚓᚂᚉ;Irish:Sean-Ghaeilge;Scottish Gaelic:Seann-Ghàidhlig;Manx:Shenn Yernish orShenn Ghaelg), is the oldest form of theGoidelic/Gaelic language for which there are extensive written texts. It was used fromc. 600 toc. 900. The main contemporary texts are datedc. 700–850; by 900 the language had already transitioned into earlyMiddle Irish. Some Old Irish texts date from the 10th century, although these are presumably copies of texts written at an earlier time. Old Irish is forebear toModern Irish,Manx andScottish Gaelic.[2]
Old Irish is known for having a particularly complex system ofmorphology and especially ofallomorphy (more or less unpredictable variations in stems and suffixes in differing circumstances), as well as a complexsound system involving grammatically significantconsonant mutations to the initial consonant of a word. Apparently,[* 1] neither characteristic was present in the precedingPrimitive Irish period, though initial mutations likely existed in a non-grammaticalised form in the prehistoric era.[4][full citation needed]
Contemporary Old Irish scholarship is still greatly influenced by the works of a small number of scholars active in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such asRudolf Thurneysen (1857–1940) andOsborn Bergin (1873–1950).
Notable characteristics of Old Irish compared with other oldIndo-European languages, are:
Old Irish also preserves most aspects of the complicatedProto-Indo-European (PIE) system of morphology. Nouns and adjectives aredeclined in three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter); three numbers (singular, dual, plural); and five cases (nominative, vocative, accusative, dative and genitive). MostPIE noun stem classes are maintained (o-,yo-,ā-,yā-,i-,u-,r-,n-,s-, and consonant stems). Most of the complexities ofPIE verbal conjugation are also maintained, and there are new complexities introduced by varioussound changes (seebelow).
Old Irish was the only known member of theGoidelic branch of theCeltic languages, which is, in turn, a subfamily of the widerIndo-European language family that also includes theSlavonic,Italic/Romance,Indo-Aryan andGermanic subfamilies, along with several others. Old Irish is the ancestor of all modern Goidelic languages:Modern Irish,Scottish Gaelic andManx.
A still older form of Irish is known asPrimitive Irish. Fragments of Primitive Irish, mainly personal names, are known from inscriptions on stone written in theOgham alphabet. The inscriptions date from about the 4th to the 6th centuries. Primitive Irish appears to have been very close toCommon Celtic, the ancestor of allCeltic languages, and it had a lot of the characteristics of other archaic Indo-European languages.
Relatively little survives in the way of strictly contemporary sources. They are represented mainly by shorter or longerglosses on the margins orbetween the lines of religiousLatinmanuscripts, most of them preserved in monasteries in Germany, Italy, Switzerland, France and Austria, having been taken there byearly Irish missionaries. Whereas in Ireland, many of the older manuscripts appear to have been worn out through extended and heavy use, their counterparts on the Continent were much less prone to the same risk because once they ceased to be understood, they were rarely consulted.[6]
The earliest Old Irish passages may be the transcripts found in theCambrai Homily, which is thought to belong to the early 8th century. TheBook of Armagh contains texts from the early 9th century. Important Continental collections of glosses from the 8th and 9th century include theWürzburg Glosses (mainly) on thePauline Epistles, theMilan Glosses on a commentary to thePsalms and theSt Gall Glosses onPriscian's Grammar.
Further examples are found atKarlsruhe (Germany), Paris (France), Milan,Florence andTurin (Italy). A late 9th-century manuscript from theabbey of Reichenau, now inSt. Paul in Carinthia (Austria), contains a spell and four Old Irish poems. TheLiber Hymnorum and theStowe Missal date from about 900 to 1050.
In addition to contemporary witnesses, the vast majority of Old Irish texts are attested in manuscripts of a variety of later dates. Manuscripts of the later Middle Irish period, such as theLebor na hUidre and theBook of Leinster, contain texts which are thought to derive from written exemplars in Old Irish now lost and retain enough of their original form to merit classification as Old Irish.
The preservation of certain linguistic forms current in the Old Irish period may provide reason to assume that an Old Irish original directly or indirectly underlies the transmitted text or texts.
Theconsonant inventory of Old Irish is shown in the chart below. The complexity of Old Irish phonology is from a four-way split of phonemes inherited from Primitive Irish, with both afortis–lenis and a "broad–slender" (velarised vs.palatalised) distinction arising from historical changes. The sounds/fvθðxɣhṽnlr/ are the broad lenis equivalents of broad fortis/pbtdkɡsmNLR/; likewise for the slender (palatalised) equivalents. (However, most/ffʲ/ sounds actually derive historically from/w/, since/p/ was relatively rare in Old Irish, being a recent import from other languages such as Latin.)
| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | broad | m | N n | ŋ | ||
| slender | mʲ | Nʲ nʲ | ŋʲ | |||
| Plosive | broad | p b | t d | k ɡ | ||
| slender | pʲ bʲ | tʲ dʲ | kʲ ɡʲ | |||
| Fricative | broad | f v | θ ð | s | x ɣ | h |
| slender | fʲ vʲ | θʲ ðʲ | sʲ | xʲ ɣʲ | hʲ | |
| Nasalized fricative | broad | ṽ | ||||
| slender | ṽʲ | |||||
| Approximant | broad | R r | ||||
| slender | Rʲ rʲ | |||||
| Lateral | broad | L l | ||||
| slender | Lʲ lʲ | |||||
Some details of Old Irishphonetics are not known./sʲ/ may have been pronounced[ɕ] or[ʃ], as in Modern Irish./hʲ/ may have been the same sound as/h/ or/xʲ/. The precise articulation of the fortissonorants/N/,/Nʲ/,/L/,/Lʲ/,/R/,/Rʲ/ is unknown, but they were probably longer,tenser and generally more strongly articulated than their lenis counterparts/n/,/nʲ/,/l/,/lʲ/,/r/,/rʲ/, as in the Modern Irish and Scottish dialects that still possess a four-way distinction in thecoronalnasals andlaterals./Nʲ/ and/Lʲ/ may have been pronounced[ɲ] and[ʎ] respectively. The difference between/R(ʲ)/ and/r(ʲ)/ may have been that the former weretrills while the latter wereflaps./m(ʲ)/ and/ṽ(ʲ)/ were derived from an original fortis–lenis pair.
Old Irish had distinctivevowel length in bothmonophthongs anddiphthongs. Short diphthongs weremonomoraic, taking up the same amount of time as short vowels, while long diphthongs were bimoraic, the same as long vowels. (This is much like the situation inOld English but different fromAncient Greek whose shorter and longer diphthongs were bimoraic and trimoraic, respectively:/ai/ vs./aːi/.) The inventory of Old Irish long vowels changed significantly over the Old Irish period, but the short vowels changed much less.
The following short vowels existed:
1The short diphthongŏu likely existed very early in the Old Irish period, but merged with/u/ later on and in many instances was replaced with/o/ due to paradigmatic levelling. It is attested once in the phrasei routh by theprima manus of theWürzburg Glosses.[7]
/æ~œ/ arose from the u-infection of stressed/a/ by a/u/ that preceded a palatalized consonant. This vowel faced much inconsistency in spelling, often detectable by a word containing it being variably spelled with⟨au, ai, e, i, u⟩ across attestations.Tulach "hill, mound" is the most commonly cited example of this vowel, with the spelling of its inflections includingtulach itself,telaig,telocho,tilchaib,taulich andtailaig. This special vowel also ran rampant in many words starting with the stressed prefixair- (from Proto-Celtic*ɸare).[8][9]
Archaic Old Irish (before about 750) had the following inventory of long vowels:
1Both/e₁ː/ and/e₂ː/ were normally written⟨é⟩ but must have been pronounced differently because they have different origins and distinct outcomes in later Old Irish./e₁ː/ stems from Proto-Celtic *ē (< PIE *ei), or fromē in words borrowed from Latin./e₂ː/ generally stems fromcompensatory lengthening of short *e because of loss of the following consonant (in certain clusters) or a directly following vowel inhiatus. It is generally thought that/e₁ː/ was higher than/e₂ː/.[10] Perhaps/e₁ː/ was[eː] while/e₂ː/ was[ɛː]. They are clearly distinguished in later Old Irish, in which/e₁ː/ becomes⟨ía⟩ (but⟨é⟩ before a palatal consonant)./e₂ː/ becomes⟨é⟩ in all circumstances. Furthermore,/e₂ː/ is subject tou-affection, becoming⟨éu⟩ or⟨íu⟩, while/e₁ː/ is not.
2A similar distinction may have existed between/o₁ː/ and/o₂ː/, both written⟨ó⟩, and stemming respectively from former diphthongs (*eu, *au, *ou) and from compensatory lengthening. However, in later Old Irish both sounds appear usually as⟨úa⟩, sometimes as⟨ó⟩, and it is unclear whether/o₂ː/ existed as a separate sound any time in the Old Irish period.
3/ou/ existed only in early archaic Old Irish (c.700 or earlier); afterwards it merged into/au/. Neither sound occurred before another consonant, and both sounds became⟨ó⟩ in later Old Irish (often⟨ú⟩ or⟨u⟩ before another vowel). The late⟨ó⟩ does not develop into⟨úa⟩, suggesting that⟨áu⟩ >⟨ó⟩ postdated⟨ó⟩ >⟨úa⟩.
Later Old Irish had the following inventory of long vowels:
1Early Old Irish/ai/ and/oi/ merged in later Old Irish. It is unclear what the resulting sound was, as scribes continued to use both⟨aí⟩ and⟨oí⟩ to indicate the merged sound. The choice of/oi/ in the table above is somewhat arbitrary.
The distribution of shortvowels inunstressedsyllables is a little complicated. All short vowels may appear in absolutely final position (at the very end of a word) after both broad and slender consonants. The front vowels/e/ and/i/ are often spelled⟨ae⟩ and⟨ai⟩ after broad consonants, which might indicate a retracted pronunciation here, perhaps something like[ɘ] and[ɨ]. All ten possibilities are shown in the following examples:
| Old Irish | Pronunciation | English | Annotations |
|---|---|---|---|
| marba | /ˈmarva/ | kill | 1sg.subj. |
| léicea | /ˈLʲeːɡʲa/ | leave | 1 sg. subj. |
| marbae | /ˈmarve/ ([ˈmarvɘ]?) | kill | 2 sg. subj. |
| léice | /ˈLʲeːɡʲe/ | leave | 2 sg. subj. |
| marbai | /ˈmarvi/ ([ˈmarvɨ]?) | kill | 2 sg.indic. |
| léici | /ˈlʲeːɡʲi/ | leave | 2 sg. indic. |
| súlo | /ˈsuːlo/ | eye | gen. |
| doirseo | /ˈdoRʲsʲo/ | door | gen. |
| marbu | /ˈmarvu/ | kill | 1 sg. indic. |
| léiciu | /ˈLʲeːɡʲu/ | leave | 1 sg. indic. |
The distribution of short vowels in unstressed syllables, other than when absolutely final, was quite restricted. It is usually thought that there were only two allowed phonemes:/ə/ (written⟨a, ai, e, i⟩ depending on the quality of surrounding consonants) and/u/ (written⟨u⟩ or⟨o⟩). The phoneme/u/ tended to occur when the following syllable contained an *ū inProto-Celtic (for example,dligud/ˈdʲlʲiɣuð/ "law" (dat.) < PC *dligedū), or after a broadlabial (for example,lebor/ˈLʲevur/ "book";domun/ˈdoṽun/ "world"). The phoneme/ə/ occurred in other circumstances. The occurrence of the two phonemes was generally unrelated to the nature of the corresponding Proto-Celtic vowel, which could be any monophthong: long or short.
Long vowels also occur in unstressed syllables. However, they rarely reflect Proto-Celtic long vowels, which were shortened prior to the deletion (syncope) of inner syllables. Rather, they originate in one of the following ways:
Stress is generally on the first syllable of a word. However, in verbs it occurs on the second syllable when the first syllable is aclitic (the verbal prefixas- inas·beir/asˈberʲ/ "he says"). In such cases, the unstressed prefix is indicated in grammatical works with a followingcentre dot (⟨·⟩).
As with mostmedieval languages, theorthography of Old Irish is not fixed, so the following statements are to be taken as generalisations only. Individualmanuscripts may vary greatly from these guidelines.
The Old Irishalphabet consists of the following eighteenletters of theLatin alphabet:
in addition to the fivelongvowels, shown by anacute accent (´):
thelenited consonants denoted with asuperdot (◌̇):
and theeclipsis consonants also denoted with a superdot:
Old Irishdigraphs include the lenition consonants:
the eclipsis consonants:
thegeminatives:
and thediphthongs:
The following table indicates the broad pronunciation of various consonant letters in various environments:
| Broad consonant phonemes | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Letter | Word-initial | Non-initial | |||
| unmutated | eclipsed | lenited | single | geminate | |
| b | /b/ | ⟨mb⟩/m/ | /v/ | ⟨bb⟩/b/ | |
| c | /k/ | /ɡ/ | ⟨ch⟩/x/ | /k/,/ɡ/ | ⟨cc⟩/k/ |
| d | /d/ | ⟨nd⟩/N/ | /ð/ | — | |
| f | /f/ | /v/ | ⟨ḟ/fh⟩// | /f/ | — |
| g | /ɡ/ | ⟨ng⟩/ŋ/ | /ɣ/ | — | |
| h | See explanation below | ||||
| l | /L/ | — | /l/ | ⟨ll⟩/L/ | |
| m | /m/ | — | /ṽ/ | ⟨mm⟩/m/ | |
| n | /N/ | — | /n/ | ⟨nn⟩/N/ | |
| p | /p/ | /b/ | ⟨ph⟩/f/ | /p/,/b/ | ⟨pp⟩/p/ |
| r | /R/ | — | /r/ | ⟨rr⟩/R/ | |
| s₁ | /s/ | — | ⟨ṡ/sh⟩/h/ | /s/ | — |
| s₂1 | /s/ | — | ⟨f/ph⟩/f/ | — | |
| t | /t/ | /d/ | ⟨th⟩/θ/ | /t/,/d/ | ⟨tt⟩/t/ |
When the consonantsb, d, g are eclipsed by the preceding word (always from a word-initial position), their spelling and pronunciation change to:⟨mb⟩/m/,⟨nd⟩/N/,⟨ng⟩/ŋ/[13]
Generally, geminating a consonant ensures its unmutated sound. While the letter⟨c⟩ may be voiced/ɡ/ at the end of some words, but when it is written double⟨cc⟩ it is always voiceless/k/ in regularised texts; however, even final/ɡ/ was often written "cc", as inbec / becc "small, little" (Modern Irish and Scottishbeag, Manxbeg).
In later Irish manuscripts, lenitedf ands are denoted with the letterh⟨fh⟩,⟨sh⟩, instead of using a superdot⟨ḟ⟩,⟨ṡ⟩.[13]
When initials stemmed from Primitive Irish*sw-, its lenited version is⟨f⟩[ɸ].
The slender (palatalised) variants of the 13 consonants are denoted with/ʲ/ marking the letter. They occur in the following environments:
Although Old Irish has both a sound/h/ and a letterh, there is no consistent relationship between the two. Vowel-initial words are sometimes written with an unpronouncedh, especially if they are very short (the Old Irishprepositioni "in" was sometimes writtenhi) or if they need to be emphasised (the name of Ireland,Ériu, was sometimes writtenHériu). On the other hand, words that begin with the sound/h/ are usually written without it:a ór/ahoːr/ "her gold". If the sound and the spellingco-occur, it is by coincidence, asní hed/Nʲiːheð/ "it is not".
The voiceless stops of Old Irish arec, p, t. They contrast with the voiced stopsg, b, d. Additionally, the letterm can behave similarly to a stop following vowels. These seven consonants often mutate when not in the word-initial position.
In non-initial positions, the single-letter voiceless stopsc, p, andt become the voiced stops/ɡ/,/b/, and/d/ respectively unless they are written double. Ambiguity in these letters' pronunciations arises when a single consonant follows anl, n, orr.[13] The lenited stopsch, ph, andth become/x/,/f/, and/θ/ respectively.
| Non-initial voiceless stops⟨c⟩,⟨p⟩,⟨t⟩ | ||
|---|---|---|
| Old Irish | Pronunciation | English |
| macc | /mak/ | son |
| bec orbecc | /bʲeɡ/ | small |
| op oropp | /ob/ | refuse |
| bratt | /brat/ | mantle |
| brot orbrott | /brod/ | goad |
| Lenited consonants⟨ch⟩,⟨ph⟩,⟨th⟩ | ||
| ech | /ex/ | horse |
| oíph | /oif/ | beauty |
| áth | /aːθ/ | ford |
The voiced stopsb, d, andg become fricative/v/,/ð/, and/ɣ/, respectively—identical sounds to their word-initial lenitions.
| Non-initial voiced stops⟨g⟩,⟨b⟩,⟨d⟩ | ||
|---|---|---|
| Old Irish | Pronunciation | English |
| dub | /duv/ | black |
| mod | /moð/ | work |
| mug | /muɣ/ | slave |
| claideb | /klaðʲəv/ | sword |
| claidib | /klaðʲəvʲ/ | swords |
In non-initial positions, the letterm usually becomes the nasal fricative/ṽ/, but in some cases it becomes a nasal stop, denoted as/m/. In cases in which it becomes a stop,m is often written double to avoid ambiguity.
| Non-initial consonant⟨m⟩ | ||
|---|---|---|
| Old Irish | Pronunciation | English |
| dám | /daːṽ/ | company |
| lom orlomm | /Lom/ | bare |
Ambiguity arises in the pronunciation of the stop consonants (c, g, t, d, p, b) when they followl, n, orr:
| Homographs involving⟨l⟩,⟨n⟩,⟨r⟩ | ||
|---|---|---|
| Old Irish | Pronunciation | English |
| derc | /dʲerk/ | hole |
| derc | /dʲerɡ/ | red |
| daltae | /daLte/ | fosterling |
| celtae | /kʲeLde/ | who hide |
| anta | /aNta/ | of remaining |
| antae | /aNde/ | who remain |
Afterm, the letterb is naturally a stop/b/. Afterd, l, r, the letterb is fricative/v/:
| Consonant⟨b⟩ | ||
|---|---|---|
| Old Irish | Pronunciation | English |
| imb | /imʲbʲ/ | butter |
| odb | /oðv/ | knot (in a tree) |
| delb | /dʲelv/ | image |
| marb | /marv/ | dead |
Aftern orr, the letterd is a stop/d/:
| Consonant⟨d⟩ | ||
|---|---|---|
| Old Irish | Pronunciation | English |
| bind | /bʲiNʲdʲ/ | melodious |
| cerd | /kʲeRd/ | art, skill |
Aftern, l, orr, the letterg is usually a stop/ɡ/, but it becomes a fricative/ɣ/ in a few words:
| Consonant⟨g⟩ | ||
|---|---|---|
| Old Irish | Pronunciation | English |
| long | /Loŋɡ/ | ship |
| delg ordelc | /dʲelɡ/ | thorn |
| argat orarggat | /arɡəd/ | silver |
| ingen[* 2] | /inʲɣʲən/ | daughter |
| ingen[* 2] | /iNʲɡʲən/ | nail, claw |
| bairgen | /barʲɣʲən/ | loaf of bread |
The lettersl, n, r are generally written double when they indicatetense sonorants and single when they indicatelax sonorants. Originally, it reflected an actual difference between single and geminate consonants, as tense sonorants in many positions (such as between vowels or word-finally) developed from geminates. As the gemination was lost, the use of written double consonants was repurposed to indicate tense sonorants. Doubly written consonants of this sort do not occur in positions where tense sonorants developed from non-geminated Proto-Celtic sonorants (such as word-initially or before a consonant).
| Old Irish | Pronunciation | English |
|---|---|---|
| corr | /koR/ | crane |
| cor | /kor/ | putting |
| coll | /koL/ | hazel |
| col | /kol/ | sin |
| sonn | /soN/ | stake |
| son | /son/ | sound |
| ingen[* 2] | /inʲɣʲən/ | daughter |
| ingen[* 2] | /iNʲɡʲən/ | nail, claw |
Geminate consonants appear to have existed since the beginning of the Old Irish period, but they were simplified by the end, as is generally reflected by the spelling. Eventually, however,ll, mm, nn, rr were repurposed to indicate nonlenited variants of those sounds in certain positions.
Written vowelsa, ai, e, i in poststressed syllables (except when absolutely word-final) all seem to represent phonemic/ə/. The particular vowel that appears is determined by the quality (broad vs. slender) of the surrounding consonants and has no relation to the etymological vowel quality:
| Preceding consonant | Following consonant | Spelling | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| broad | broad | ⟨a⟩ | dígal/ˈdʲiːɣəl/ "vengeance" (nom.) |
| broad | slender (in open syllable) | ⟨a⟩ | |
| broad | slender (in closed syllable) | ⟨ai⟩ | dígail/ˈdʲiːɣəlʲ/ "vengeance" (acc./dat.) |
| slender | broad | ⟨e⟩ | dliged/ˈdʲlʲiɣʲəð/ "law" (acc.) |
| slender | slender | ⟨i⟩ | dligid/ˈdʲlʲiɣʲəðʲ/ "law" (gen.) |
It seems likely that spelling variations reflectedallophonic variations in the pronunciation of/ə/.
Old Irish underwent extensive phonological changes fromProto-Celtic in both consonants and vowels.[14] Final syllables were lost ortransphonologized as grammatical mutations on the following word. In addition, unstressed syllables faced various reductions and deletions of their vowels.
Old Irish is afusional,nominative-accusative, andVSO language.
Nounsdecline for 5cases:nominative,accusative,genitive,prepositional,vocative; 3genders: masculine, feminine, neuter; 3numbers:singular,dual,plural.Adjectivesagree with nouns incase,gender, andnumber. Theprepositional case is called thedative by convention.
Verbsconjugate for 3tenses:past,present,future; 3aspects:simple,perfective,imperfective; 4moods:indicative,subjunctive,conditional,imperative; 2voices:active, andpassive;independent, anddependent forms; andsimple, andcomplex forms. Verbs displaytense,aspect,mood,voice, and sometimesportmanteau forms throughsuffixes, orstem vowel changes for the former four.Proclitics form a verbal complex with the core verb, and the verbal complex is often preceded by preverbalparticles such asní (negative marker),in (interrogative marker),ro (perfective marker).Direct objectpersonal pronouns occur between thepreverb and the verbalstem. Verbsagree with theirsubject inperson andnumber. A single verb can stand as an entire sentence. Emphatic particles such as -sa and -se are affixed to the end of the verb.
Prepositionsinflect forperson andnumber, and different prepositionsgovern differentcases, sometimes depending on thesemantics intended.
The Old Irish of the period c. 600–c. 900 AD is as yet virtually devoid of dialect differences, and may be treated as the common ancestor of the Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx of the Middle Ages and modern period; Old Irish is thus sometimes called 'Old Gaelic' to avoid confusion.
The oldest form of the standard that we have is the language of the period c. AD 600–900, usually called 'Old Irish' – but this use of the word 'Irish' is a misapplication (popular among English-speakers in both Ireland and Scotland), for that period of the language would be more accurately called 'Old Gaelic'.
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