The state's name is derived from theChoctaw wordsokla, 'people' andhumma, which translates as 'red'.[10] Oklahoma is also known informally by itsnickname, "The Sooner State", in reference to theSooners,American settlers who staked their claims in formerly American Indian-owned lands until theIndian Appropriations Act of 1889 authorized theLand Rush of 1889 opening the land to settlement.
With ancient mountain ranges, prairie,mesas, and eastern forests, most of Oklahoma lies in theGreat Plains,Cross Timbers, and theU.S. Interior Highlands, all regions prone to severe weather.[11] Oklahoma is at a confluence of three major Americancultural regions. Historically, it served as a government-sanctionedterritory for American Indians moved from east of the Mississippi River, a route for cattle drives from Texas and related regions, and a destination for Southern settlers. There are currently 26Indigenous languages spoken in Oklahoma.[12] According to the 2020 U.S. census, 14.2 percent of Oklahomans identify asAmerican Indians, the highest indigenous population by percentage in any state.[13]
A major producer of natural gas, oil, and agricultural products, Oklahoma relies on an economic base of aviation, energy, telecommunications, and biotechnology.[14] Oklahoma City andTulsa serve as Oklahoma's primary economic anchors, with nearly two-thirds of Oklahomans living within theirmetropolitan statistical areas.[15]
The expedition of SpaniardFrancisco Vázquez de Coronado traveled through the area in 1541,[26] but French explorers claimed the area in the early 18th century.[27] By the 18th century, Comanche and Kiowa entered the region from the west and Quapaw and Osage peoples moved into what is now eastern Oklahoma. French colonists claimed the region until 1803, when all the French territory west of the Mississippi River was acquired by the United States in theLouisiana Purchase.[26] The territory was a part of theArkansas Territory from 1819 until 1828.[28]
During the 19th century, theU.S. federal government forcibly removed tens of thousands of American Indians from their ancestral homelands from across North America and transported them to the area including and surrounding present-day Oklahoma. The Choctaw was the first of theFive Civilized Tribes to be removed from theSoutheastern United States. The phrase "Trail of Tears" originated from a description of the removal of theChoctaw Nation in 1831, although the term is usually used for theCherokee removal.[29]
Seventeen thousand Cherokees and 2,000 of their black slaves were deported.[30] The area, already occupied byOsage andQuapaw tribes, was called for theChoctaw Nation until revised Native American and then later American policy redefined the boundaries to include other Native Americans. By 1890, more than 30 Native American nations and tribes had been concentrated on land withinIndian Territory or "Indian Country".[31]
All Five Civilized Tribes signed treaties with the Confederate military during theAmerican Civil War.[32] TheCherokee Nation had an internal civil war.[33] Slavery in Indian Territory was not abolished until 1866.[34]
In the period between 1866 and 1899,[26] cattle ranches in Texas strove to meet the demands for food in eastern cities and railroads in Kansas promised to deliver in a timely manner.Cattle trails and cattle ranches developed ascowboys either drove their product north or settled illegally in Indian Territory.[26] In 1881, four of five major cattle trails on the western frontier traveled through Indian Territory.[35]
Indian reservations in Oklahoma prior to the Dawes Act of 1887.
Increased presence of white settlers in Indian Territory and their demand for land owned and guaranteed to Indian tribes by treaties with the U.S. government prompted the United States to enact theDawes Act in 1887 and theCurtis Act of 1898. The acts abolished tribal governments, eliminated tribal ownership of land, and allotted 160 acres (65 ha) of land to each head of an Indian family. An objective of the acts was the forced assimilation of Indians into white society. Land not allotted to individual Indians was owned by the U.S. government and sold or distributed to settlers and railroads. The proceeds of the land sales were used to educate Indian children and advance the policy of assimilation. As a result of the two acts about one-half of land previously owned by Indian tribes was owned by whites by 1900.[36] Moreover, much of the land allotted to individual Indian heads of families became white-owned. Allottees often sold or were fraudulently deprived of their land.[37]
The acquisition of tribal lands by the U.S. government led toland runs, also called "land rushes," from 1887 and 1895. Major land runs, including theLand Rush of 1889, opened up millions of acres of formerly tribal lands to white settlement. The "rushes" began at a precise times as each prospective settler literally raced with other prospective settlers to claim ownership of 160 acres (65 ha) of land under theHomestead Act of 1862. Usually land was claimed by settlers on a first come, first served basis.[38] Those who broke the rules by crossing the border into the territory before the official opening time were said to have been crossing the bordersooner, leading to the termsooners, which eventually became the state's official nickname.[39]George Washington Steele was appointed the first governor of the territory of Oklahoma in 1890.
A proposed map of the 'State of Sequoyah' compiled from the USGS Map of Indian Territory (1902)
Attempts to create an all-Indian state namedOklahoma and a later attempt to create an all-Indian state namedSequoyah failed but the Sequoyah Statehood Convention of 1905 eventually laid the groundwork for the Oklahoma Statehood Convention, which took place two years later.[40] On June 16, 1906, Congress enacteda statute authorizing the people of the Oklahoma and Indian Territories (as well what would become the states ofArizona andNew Mexico) to form a constitution and state government in order to be admitted as a state.[41] On November 16, 1907, PresidentTheodore Roosevelt issuedPresidential Proclamation no.780, establishing Oklahoma as the 46th state in the Union.[42]
The new state became a focal point for the emergingoil industry, as discoveries of oil pools prompted towns to grow rapidly in population and wealth. Tulsa eventually became known as the "Oil Capital of the World" for most of the 20th century and oil investments fueled much of the state's early economy.[43] In 1927, Oklahoman businessmanCyrus Avery, known as the "Father of Route 66", began the campaign to createU.S. Route 66. Using a stretch of highway fromAmarillo, Texas to Tulsa, Oklahoma to form the original portion of Highway 66, Avery spearheaded the creation of theU.S. Highway 66 Association to oversee the planning of Route 66, based in his hometown of Tulsa.[44]
In late September 1918, the first cases of theSpanish flu appeared in Oklahoma. Though public health authorities statewide had some indication that the pandemic was westward, the turmoil caused by the rapid advancement of the disease quickly overwhelmed both health workers and local governing bodies. In Oklahoma City, shortages of both supplies and personnel were mitigated, in part, by the mobilization of the American Red Cross. Rough estimates based on contemporary reports indicate that approximately 100,000 people fell ill with the disease before the pandemic ebbed in 1919. Of those 100,000 cases, it is assumed that around 7,500 proved fatal, placing total mortality rates for the state in the area of 7.5%.[45]
Oklahoma also has a richAfrican-American history. Many Black towns, founded by the Freedmen of the Five Tribes during Reconstruction, thrived in the early 20th century with the arrival of BlackExodusters who migrated from neighboring states, especially Kansas. The politicianEdward P. McCabe encouraged Black settlers to come to what was then Indian Territory. McCabe discussed with President Theodore Roosevelt the possibility of making Oklahoma a majority-Black state.[46]
By the early 20th century, theGreenwood district ofTulsa was one of the most prosperous African-American communities in the United States.[47]Jim Crow laws had establishedracial segregation since before the start of the 20th century, but Tulsa's Black residents had created a thriving area.[48][49][50]
Social tensions were exacerbated by the revival of theKu Klux Klan after 1915. TheTulsa race massacre broke out in 1921, with White mobs attacking Black people and carrying out apogrom in Greenwood. In one of the costliest episodes ofracist violence in American history, sixteen hours of rioting resulted in the destruction of 35 city blocks, $1.8 million in property damage, and an estimated death toll of between 75 and 300 people.[51] By the late 1920s, the Ku Klux Klan had declined to negligible influence within the state.[52]
TheDust Bowl sent thousands of farmers into poverty during the 1930s.
During the 1930s, parts of the state began to suffer from the consequences of poor farming practices. This period was known as theDust Bowl, throughout which areas of Kansas, Texas, New Mexico, andnorthwestern Oklahoma were hampered by long periods of little rainfall, strong winds, abnormally high temperatures, and most notably, severedust storms sending thousands of farmers into poverty and forcing them to relocate to more fertile areas of the western United States.[53] Over a twenty-year period ending in 1950, the state saw its only historical decline in population, dropping 6.9 percent as impoverished families migrated out of the state after the Dust Bowl.
Soil andwater conservation projects markedly changed practices in the state, leading to the construction of massive flood control systems and dams to supply water for domestic needs and agricultural irrigation.[11][54] As of 2024, Oklahoma had more than 4,700 dams, about 20% of all dams in the U.S.[55]
The bombing of theAlfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City was one of the deadliest acts of terrorism in American history.
In 1995, Oklahoma City was the site of the most destructive act of domestic terrorism in American history. TheOklahoma City bombing of April 19, 1995, in whichTimothy McVeigh detonated a large, crude explosive device outside theAlfred P. Murrah Federal Building, killed 168 people, including 19 children. For his crime, McVeigh was executed by the federal government on June 11, 2001. His accomplice,Terry Nichols, is serving life in prison without parole for helping plan the attack and prepare the explosive.[56]
On July 9, 2020, theSupreme Court of the United States determined inMcGirt v. Oklahoma that the reservations of the Five Tribes, comprising much of Eastern Oklahoma, were never disestablished by Congress and thus are still "Indian Country" for the purposes of criminal law.[59]
Later decisions by the Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals also found the Quapaw Nation,[60] Ottawa Tribe, Peoria Tribe, and Miami Tribe[61] also had existing reservations. The Osage Nation is awaiting for a possible appellate decision after a district judge had ruled that the Osage reservation was disestablished.[62]
Oklahoma is the 20th-largest state in the United States, covering an area of 69,895 square miles (181,030 km2), with 68,591 square miles (177,650 km2) of land and 1,304 square miles (3,380 km2) of water.[63] It lies partly in theGreat Plains near the geographical center of the 48contiguous states. It is bordered on the east byArkansas andMissouri, on the north byKansas, on the northwest byColorado, on the far west byNew Mexico, and on the south and near-west byTexas.
Oklahoma's border with Kansas was defined as the 37th Parallel in the 1854Kansas-Nebraska Act. This was disputed with the Cherokee and Osage Nations, which claimed their border extended North of this line and could not be part of theKansas Territory. This was resolved in 1870 with theDrum Creek Treaty, which reestablished Kansas's southern border as the 37th parallel. This also applied to the then No-Man's Land that became theOklahoma Panhandle.
The Oklahoma-Texas border consists of theRed River of the South in the south and the 100th meridian west as the western border between Oklahoma and the Texas Panhandle. These were first established in the 1819Adams–Onís Treaty between the United States and Spain.
The Oklahoma panhandle was originally part of the Panhandle of the Republic of Texas, but when Texas joined the Union as a slave state, it could not retain any lands north of 36 degrees 30 minutes, as specified in theMissouri Compromise. The Panhandle existed as a no-man's land until 1907 when Oklahoma acquired the territory upon gaining statehood.
Oklahoma's Eastern border is divided between Missouri and Arkansas. The Missouri-Oklahoma border is defined as the Meridian passing through the Kawsmouth,[64] where the Kansas River meets the Missouri River. This is the same Meridian as the Kansas-Missouri border.
The Oklahoma-Arkansas border was originally defined by two lines: the borders between Arkansas and the Cherokee and Choctaw Reservations. This formed two diagonal lines meeting at the western edge of Fort Smith Arkansas, with one line running northeast from the Red River and the other running southeast from the Oklahoma-Arkansas-Missouri border. The Choctaw-Arkansas border was established in the 1820Treaty of Doak's Sand, and later refined in the 1830Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. These treaties left a 57-acreexclave of the Choctaw reservation bounded by Arkansas, the Arkansas River and the Poteau River. This became the site of a smuggling camp called "Coke Hill", noted mostly for its importance in cocaine smuggling.[65]
After Petitioning congress to hand over jurisdiction, the 57 acres was given to Arkansas in 1905. The 1985 US Supreme Court Case Oklahoma v. Arkansas decided the land would remain Arkansas, even though the Choctaw had not been notified or asked about the territory being handed over.[66] Therefore, the Poteau River serves as the Oklahoma-Arkansas boundary for approximately 1 mile, reducing the Choctaw Reservation and later Oklahoma by 57 acres as established in the treaties of the early 1800s.
Oklahoma is between theGreat Plains and theOzark Plateau in theGulf of Mexico watershed,[67] generally sloping from the high plains of its western boundary to the low wetlands of its southeastern boundary.[68][69] Its highest and lowest points follow this trend, with its highest peak,Black Mesa, at 4,973 feet (1,516 m) above sea level, situated near its far northwest corner in theOklahoma Panhandle. The state's lowest point is on the Little River near its far southeastern boundary near the town ofIdabel, which dips to 289 feet (88 m) above sea level.[70]
Among the most geographically diverse states, Oklahoma is one of four to harbor more than 10 distinctecological regions, with 11 in its borders—more per square mile than in any other state.[11] Its western and eastern halves, however, are marked by extreme differences in geographical diversity: Eastern Oklahoma touches eight ecological regions and its western half contains three. Although having fewer ecological regions Western Oklahoma contains many rare, relic species.[11]
More than 500 named creeks and rivers make up Oklahoma's waterways, and with 200 lakes created by dams, it holds the nation's highest number of artificial reservoirs.[72] Most of the state lies in two primarydrainage basins belonging to theRed andArkansas Rivers, though the Lee and Little Rivers also contain significant drainage basins.[73]
Turner Falls
State rock (rose rock) specimens from Cleveland County
Illinois River in northeastern Oklahoma
Elk Mountain, in the eastern Wichita Mountains, southwestern Oklahoma
Populations ofAmerican bison inhabit the state's prairie ecosystems.
Due to Oklahoma's location at the confluence of many geographic regions, the state's climatic regions have a high rate of biodiversity. Forests cover 24 percent of Oklahoma[72] andprairie grasslands composed of shortgrass, mixed-grass, andtallgrass prairie, harbor expansive ecosystems in the state's central and western portions, althoughcropland has largely replaced native grasses.[74] Where rainfall is sparse in the state's western regions, shortgrass prairie andshrublands are the most prominent ecosystems, thoughpinyon pines, red cedar (junipers), andponderosa pines grow near rivers and creek beds in the panhandle's far western reaches.[74]Southwestern Oklahoma contains many rare,disjunct species, includingsugar maple,bigtooth maple,nolina, andTexas live oak.[75]
Oklahoma is in a humid subtropical region[86] that lies in a transition zone between semiarid further to the west, humid continental to the north, and humid subtropical to the east and southeast. Most of the state lies in an area known asTornado Alley characterized by frequent interaction between cold, dry air from Canada, warm to hot, dry air from Mexico and the Southwestern U.S., and warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico. The interactions between these three contrasting air currents producessevere weather (severe thunderstorms, damaging thunderstorm winds, large hail and tornadoes) with a frequency virtually unseen anywhere else on planet Earth.[70] An average 62tornadoesstrike the state per year—one of the highest rates in the world.[87]
Because of Oklahoma's position between zones of differing prevailing temperature and winds, weather patterns within the state can vary widely over relatively short distances, and they can change drastically in a short time.[70] On November 11, 1911, the temperature at Oklahoma City reached 83 °F (28 °C) (the record high for that date), thena cold front of unprecedented intensity slammed across the state, causing the temperature to reach 17 °F (−8 °C) (the record low for that date) by midnight.[88] This type of phenomenon is also responsible for many of the tornadoes in the area, such as the1912 Oklahoma tornado outbreak when a warm front traveled along a stalled cold front, resulting in an average of about one tornado per hour.[89]
Thehumid subtropical climate (KöppenCfa) of central, southern, and eastern Oklahoma is influenced heavily by southerly winds bringing moisture from theGulf of Mexico. Traveling westward, the climate transitions progressively toward asemiarid zone (KöppenBSk) in the high plains of the Panhandle and other western areas from aboutLawton westward, less frequently touched by southern moisture.[86] Precipitation and temperatures decline from east to west accordingly, with areas in the southeast averaging an annual temperature of 62 °F (17 °C) and an annual rainfall of generally over 40 in (1,020 mm) and up to 56 in (1,420 mm), while areas of the (higher-elevation) panhandle average 58 °F (14 °C), with annual rainfall under 17 in (430 mm).[90]
Over almost all of Oklahoma, winter is the driest season. Average monthly precipitation increases dramatically in the spring to a peak in May, the wettest month over most of the state, with its frequent and not uncommonly severe thunderstorm activity. Early June can still be wet, but most years see a marked decrease in rainfall during June and early July. Mid-summer (July and August) represents a secondary dry season over much of Oklahoma, with long stretches of hot weather with only sporadic thunderstorm activity not uncommon many years. Severe drought is common in the hottest summers, such as those of 1934, 1954, 1980 and 2011, all of which featured weeks on end of virtual rainlessness and highs well over 100 °F (38 °C). Average precipitation rises again from September to mid-October, representing a secondary wetter season, then declines from late October through December.[70]
Oklahoma had 598 incorporated places in 2010, including four cities over 100,000 in population and 43 over 10,000.[94] Two of thefifty largest cities in the United States are in Oklahoma,Oklahoma City andTulsa, and sixty-five percent of Oklahomans live within their metropolitan areas, or spheres of economic and social influence defined by the United States Census Bureau as ametropolitan statistical area. Oklahoma City, the state's capital and largest city, had thelargest metropolitan area in the state in 2020, with 1,425,695 people, and themetropolitan area of Tulsa had 1,015,331 residents.[95] Between 2000 and 2010, the leading cities in population growth wereBlanchard (172.4%),Elgin (78.2%),Jenks (77.0%),Piedmont (56.7%),Bixby (56.6%), andOwasso (56.3%).[94]
In descending order of population, Oklahoma's largest cities in 2010 were: Oklahoma City (579,999, +14.6%), Tulsa (391,906, −0.3%), Norman (110,925, +15.9%),Broken Arrow (98,850, +32.0%), Lawton (96,867, +4.4%),Edmond (81,405, +19.2%),Moore (55,081, +33.9%),Midwest City (54,371, +0.5%),Enid (49,379, +5.0%), andStillwater (45,688, +17.0%). Of the state's ten largest cities, three are outside the metropolitan areas of Oklahoma City and Tulsa, and only Lawton has a metropolitan statistical area of its own as designated by the United States Census Bureau, though the metropolitan statistical area ofFort Smith, Arkansas extends into the state.[96]
Under Oklahoma law, municipalities are divided into two categories: cities, defined as having more than 1,000 residents, and towns, with under 1,000 residents. Both havelegislative,judicial, and public power within their boundaries, but cities can choose between amayor–council,council–manager, orstrong mayor form of government, while towns operate through an elected officer system.[97]
From a1920 U.S. census population of 2,028,283, Oklahoma's population has continued to increase. At the2010 census, its population was 3,751,675. The2020 census revealed its population to be was 3,959,353, an 5.5% increase since 2010.[101] A 2022American Community Survey estimate found that the population had surpassed 4 million residents for the first time.[102] Among the states of theSouth Central region, Oklahoma had the second-largest population increase from 2010 to 2020, behindTexas.[103][104]
Of the state's total resident population, approximately 236,882 wereimmigrants according to a study in 2018, making up 6% of the state's population at the time. Most of its immigrant population came from Mexico (45%), Vietnam (5%), India (5%), Germany (3%), and Guatemala (3%). In the state, 246,550 residents were native-born Americans who had at least one immigrant parent. An estimated 85,000 immigrants were undocumented with 125,989 Oklahomans having lived with at least one undocumented family member between 2010 and 2014. Immigrants to Oklahoma have contributed more than a billion U.S. dollars in taxes in 2018.[105] In 2011, the U.S. Census Bureau's American Community Survey data from 2005 to 2009 indicated about 5% of Oklahoma's residents were born outside the United States. This was lower than the national figure (about 12.5% of U.S. residents were foreign-born).[106]
Map of counties in Oklahoma by racial plurality, per the 2020 U.S. census
Legend
Non-Hispanic White
50–60%
60–70%
70–80%
80–90%
Native American
40–50%
50–60%
Hispanic or Latino
50–60%
As with majority of the U.S., Oklahoma has experienced diversification since the beginning of the 21st century;[110] in 1940, 90.1% of the state's population wasnon-Hispanic White; in 2020, 75.5% of the population was White, down from 1990's 81% yet up from 2010's 72.2%. Among its population at the 2020 census, the remainder of its increasingly diverse population was 11.9%Hispanic or Latino of any race, 16%American Indian and Alaska Native, 9.7%Black or African American, 3.1%Asian, 0.4%Native Hawaiian andother Pacific Islander, and 9% some other race.[111] According to the 2010 census, 8.6% were American Indian and Alaska Native, 7.4% Black or African American, 1.7% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 4.1% from some other race and 5.9% of two or more races; 8.9% of Oklahoma's population were of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin (they may be of any race).[111]
In 2005, Oklahoma's estimated ancestral makeup was 14.5% German, 13.1%American, 11.8%Irish, 9.6%English, 8.1%African American, and 11.4% Native American (including 7.9% Cherokee),[115] though the percentage of people claiming American Indian as their only race was 8.1%.[116] Most people from Oklahoma who self-identify as havingAmerican ancestry are of overwhelminglyEnglish andScots-Irish ancestry with significant amounts ofScottish,Welsh andIrish ancestry as well.[117][118] The majority of Hispanics in Oklahoma are ofMexican origin.[119] There are 38 federally recognized Native American tribes in the state.[120]
In 2011, 47.3% of Oklahoma's population younger than age1 were minorities, meaning they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white.[121]
The English language has been official in the state of Oklahoma since 2010.[122] The variety ofNorth American English spoken is called Oklahoma English, which is "quite diverse with its uneven blending of features of North Midland, South Midland, andSouthern dialects".[123][better source needed] In 2000, 2,977,187 Oklahomans—92.6% of the resident population, five years or older—spoke only English at home, a decrease from 95% in 1990.[123] 238,732 Oklahoma residents reported speaking a language other than English at home in the 2000 census, about 7.4% of the state's population.[123]
The two most commonly spoken native North American languages areCherokee andChoctaw, with 10,000 Cherokee speakers living within theCherokee Nation tribal jurisdiction area of eastern Oklahoma and another 10,000 Choctaw speakers living in theChoctaw Nation directly south of the Cherokees.[124] Cherokee is an official language in the Cherokee Nation tribal jurisdiction area and in theUnited Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians.[4][5][6]
Twenty-fiveNative American languages are spoken in Oklahoma,[12] second only toCalifornia. However, only Cherokee, if any, exhibits some language vitality at present.Ethnologue sees Cherokee asmoribund because the only remaining active users of the language are members of the grandparent generation and older.
Spanish is the second-most commonly spoken language in the state, with 141,060 speakers counted in 2000.[123] German has 13,444 speakers representing about 0.4% of the state's population,[123] and Vietnamese is spoken by 11,330 people,[123] or about 0.4% of the population,[123] many of whom live in theAsia District ofOklahoma City. Other languages include French with 8,258 speakers (0.3%),Chinese with 6,413 (0.2%), Korean with 3,948 (0.1%), Arabic with 3,265 (0.1%), other Asian languages with 3,134 (0.1%),Tagalog with 2,888 (0.1%), Japanese with 2,546 (0.1%), and African languages with 2,546 (0.1%).[123]
Oklahoma is part of a geographical region characterized by conservative and Evangelical Protestant Christianity known as the "Bible Belt". Spanning the southern and eastern parts of the United States, the area is known forpolitically and socially conservative views, with theRepublican Party having the greater number of voters registered between the two major parties.[125] Tulsa, the state's second-largest city, home toOral Roberts University, is sometimes called the "buckle of the Bible Belt".[126][127]
In 2000, there were about 5,000Jews and 6,000 Muslims, with ten congregations to each group.[128]
According to thePew Research Center in 2008, the majority of Oklahoma's religious adherents wereChristian, accounting for about 80% of the population. The percentage of Catholics was half the national average, while the percentage ofEvangelical Protestants was more than twice the national average (tied with Arkansas for the largest percentage of any state).[129]
According to the Pew Research Center in 2014, the majority of Oklahoma's religious adherents remained Christian accounting for 79% of the population, 9 percent higher than the national average.[132] The percentage of Evangelical Protestants declined since the last study, but they remain the largest religious group in the state at 47% over 20 percent higher than the national average.[132] The largest growth over the six years between Pew's 2008 and 2014 survey was in the number of people who identify asunaffiliated in the state with an increase of 6% of the total population.
By the 2020Public Religion Research Institute's survey, 73% of the population were Christian.[133] Evangelicalism made up 29% of the state population, followed byMainline Protestantism at 19%.Historically and predominantly African-American and Latino churches collectively made up 8% of the religious demographic. An estimated 13% of the state's religious population were Roman Catholic. About 22% of the population had no religious affiliation.
Oklahoma has been described as "the world's prison capital", with 1,079 of every 100,000 residents imprisoned in 2018, the fourth-highest incarceration rate of any American state, and by comparison, higher than theincarceration rates of any country in the world.[136][137]
In an April 2023 report,The Sentencing Project highlighted Oklahoma's Failure to Protect law, which has "been used primarily against women" and has "sometimes resulted in survivors of abuse facing longer sentences for allegedly failing to protect their children from harm than the person who committed the abuse." The report states that "since the law went into effect in 2009, 139 women in Oklahoma have been imprisoned solely for failure-to-protect charges."[138] TheHuman Rights Campaign has also pointed out cases of the Oklahoma legislature's actions against the LGBTQ population and censuring of a nonbinary lawmaker.[139]
TheBOK Tower of Tulsa, Oklahoma's second-tallest building, serves as the world headquarters forWilliams Companies.
Oklahoma is host to a diverse range of sectors includingaviation, energy, transportation equipment,food processing,electronics, and telecommunications. Oklahoma is an important producer of natural gas, aircraft, andfood.[14] The state ranks third in the nation for production of natural gas, is the 27th-most agriculturally productive state, and also ranks 5th in production of wheat.[140] FourFortune 500 companies and sixFortune 1000 companies are headquartered in Oklahoma,[141] and it has been rated one of the most business-friendly states in the nation,[142] with the 7th-lowest tax burden in 2007.[143]
Though oil has historically dominated the state's economy, acollapse in the energy industry during the 1980s led to the loss of nearly 90,000 energy-related jobs between 1980 and 2000, severely damaging the local economy.[150] Oil accounted for 35 billion dollars in Oklahoma's economy in 2007,[151] and employment in the state's oil industry was outpaced by five other industries in 2007.[152] As of September 2020[update], the state's unemployment rate was 5.3%.[153]
In mid-2011, Oklahoma had a civilian labor force of 1.7 million and non-farm employment fluctuated around 1.5 million.[152] The government sector provides the most jobs, with 339,300 in 2011, followed by the transportation and utilities sector, providing 279,500 jobs, and the sectors of education, business, andmanufacturing, providing 207,800, 177,400, and 132,700 jobs, respectively.[152] Among the state's largest industries, the aerospace sector generates $11 billion annually.[142]
Tulsa is home to the largest airline maintenance base in the world, which serves as the global maintenance and engineering headquarters forAmerican Airlines.[154] In total, aerospace accounts for more than 10 percent of Oklahoma's industrial output, and it is one of the top 10 states in aerospace engine manufacturing.[14] Because of its position in the center of the United States, Oklahoma is also among the top states for logistic centers, and a major contributor to weather-related research.[142]
The state is the top manufacturer of tires in North America and contains one of the fastest-growingbiotechnology industries in the nation.[142] In 2005, international exports from Oklahoma's manufacturing industry totaled $4.3 billion, accounting for 3.6 percent of its economic impact.[155] Tire manufacturing, meat processing, oil and gas equipment manufacturing, and air conditioner manufacturing are the state's largest manufacturing industries.[156]
A major oil-producing state, Oklahoma is the fifth-largest producer of crude oil in the United States.[151]
Oklahoma is the nation's third-largest producer ofnatural gas, and its fifth-largest producer of crude oil. The state also has the second-greatest number of activedrilling rigs,[151][157] and it is even ranked fifth in crude oil reserves.[158] While the state was ranked eighth for installedwind energy capacity in 2011,[159] it still was at the bottom of states in usage ofrenewable energy in 2009, with 94% of its electricity being generated bynon-renewable sources in 2009, including 25% from coal and 46% from natural gas.[160]
Ten years later in 2019, 53.5% of electricity was produced fromnatural gas and 34.6% fromwind power.[161]
Ranking 13th for total energy consumption per capita in 2009,[162] the state's energy costs were eighth-lowest in the nation.[163]
As a whole, the oil energy industry contributes $35 billion to Oklahoma's gross domestic product (GDP), and employees of the state's oil-related companies earn an average of twice the state's typical yearly income.[151] In 2009, the state had 83,700 commercial oil wells churning 65.374 million barrels (10,393,600 m3) of crude oil.[164] A tabulated 8.5% of the nation's natural gas supply is held in Oklahoma, with 1.673 trillion cubic feet (47.4 km3) being produced in 2009.[164]
The Oklahoma Stack Play is a geographic referenced area in the Anadarko Basin. The oil field "Sooner Trend", Anadarko basin and the counties of Kingfisher and Canadian make up the basis for the "Oklahoma STACK". Other Plays such as the Eagle Ford are geological rather than geographical.[165]
All of the Fortune 500 companies based in Oklahoma are energy-related, including some of the largest companies in thepetroleum industry in the U.S.[141] Tulsa'sONEOK andWilliams Companies are the state's largest and second-largest companies respectively, also ranking as the nation's second- and third-largest companies in the field of energy, according toFortune magazine.[166]
Oklahoma Gas & Electric, commonly referred to as OG&E (NYSE: OGE) operates four base electric power plants in Oklahoma. Two of them are coal-fired power plants: one inMuskogee, and the other inRed Rock. Two are gas-fired power plants: one inHarrah and the other inKonawa. OG&E was the first electric company in Oklahoma to generate electricity from wind farms in 2003.[167]
The 27th-most agriculturally productive state, Oklahoma is fifth in cattle production and fifth in production of wheat.[140][172] Approximately 5.5 percent of American beef comes from Oklahoma, while the state produces 6.1 percent of American wheat, 4.2 percent of American pig products, and 2.2 percent of dairy products.[140]
The state had 85,500 farms in 2012, collectively producing $4.3 billion in animal products and fewer than one billion dollars in crop output with more than $6.1 billion added to the state's gross domestic product.[140] Poultry and swine are its second- and third-largest agricultural industries.[172]
With an educational system made up ofpublic school districts and independentprivate institutions, Oklahoma had 638,817 students enrolled in 1,845 public primary, secondary, andvocational schools in 533school districts as of 2008[update].[173] Oklahoma has the highest enrollment of Native American students in the nation with 126,078 students in the 2009–10 school year.[174] Oklahoma spent $7,755 for each student in 2008, and was 47th in the nation in expenditures per student,[173] though its growth of total education expenditures between 1992 and 2002 ranked 22nd.[175]
The state is among the best inpre-kindergarten education, and the National Institute for Early Education Research rated it first in the United States with regard to standards, quality, and access to pre-kindergarten education in 2004, calling it "a model forearly childhood schooling".[176] High school dropout rate decreased from 3.1 to 2.5 percent between 2007 and 2008 with Oklahoma ranked among 18 other states with 3 percent or less dropout rate.[177] In 2004, the state ranked 36th in the nation for the relative number of adults withhigh school diplomas, though at 85.2 percent, it had the highest rate among Southern states.[178][179] According to a study conducted by the Pell Institute, Oklahoma ranks 48th in college-participation for low-income students.[180]
Oklahoma holds eleven public regional universities,[183] includingNortheastern State University, the second-oldest institution of higher education west of theMississippi River,[184] also containing the only College ofOptometry in Oklahoma[185] and the largest enrollment ofNative American students in the nation by percentage and amount.[184][186]Langston University is Oklahoma's only historically black college. Six of the state's universities were placed in thePrinceton Review's list of best 122 regional colleges in 2007,[187] and three made the list of top colleges for best value. The state has 55 post-secondary technical institutions operated byOklahoma's CareerTech program for training in specific fields of industry or trade.[173]
In the 2007–2008 school year, there were 181,973 undergraduate students, 20,014 graduate students, and 4,395 first-professional degree students enrolled in Oklahoma colleges. Of these students, 18,892 received a bachelor's degree, 5,386 received a master's degree, and 462 received a first professional degree. This means the state of Oklahoma produces an average of 38,278-degree-holders per completions component (i.e. July 1, 2007 – June 30, 2008). National average is 68,322 total degrees awarded per completions component.[188]
Beginning on April 2, 2018, tens of thousands of K–12 public school teacherswent on strike due to lack of funding. According to the National Education Association, teachers in Oklahoma had ranked 49th out of the 50 states in terms of teacher pay in 2016. The Oklahoma Legislature had passed a measure a week earlier to raise teacher salaries by $6,100, but it fell short of the $10,000 raise for teachers, $5,000 raise for other school employees, and $200 million increase in extra education funding many had sought.[189] A survey in 2019 found that the pay raise obtained by the strike lifted the State's teacher pay ranking to 34th in the nation.[190]
TheCherokee Nation instigated a ten-year plan in 2005 that involved growing new speakers of theCherokee language from childhood as well as speaking it exclusively at home.[191] The plan was part of an ambitious goal that in fifty years would have at least 80% of their people fluent.[192] TheCherokee Preservation Foundation has invested $3 million into opening schools, training teachers, and developing curricula for language education, as well as initiating community gatherings where the language can be actively used.[192]A Cherokee language immersion school inTahlequah, Oklahoma educates students from pre-school through eighth grade.[193]
Because many American Indians were forced to move toIndian territory (modern day Oklahoma) whenAmerican settlement within North America had increased, Oklahoma has much linguistic diversity. Mary Linn, an associate professor of anthropology at theUniversity of Oklahoma and the associate curator of Native American languages at theSam Noble Museum, notes Oklahoma also has high levels of language endangerment.[198]
Sixty-seven Native American tribes and bands are represented in Oklahoma,[26] including 38federally recognized tribes,[199] who are headquartered and havetribal jurisdictional areas orIndian reservations in the state.[200] Native American tribes, Western ranchers, Southern settlers, and Eastern oil barons have shaped the state's cultural predisposition, and its largest cities have been named among the most underrated cultural destinations in the United States.[201]
Residents of Oklahoma are associated with traits ofSouthern hospitality—the 2006 Catalogue for Philanthropy (with data from 2004) ranks Oklahomans 7th in the nation for overall generosity.[202] The state has also been associated with a negative culturalstereotype first popularized byJohn Steinbeck's 1939 novelThe Grapes of Wrath, which described the plight of uneducated, poverty-stricken Dust Bowl-era farmers deemed "Okies".[203][204] While the term is often used in a positive manner by Oklahomans,[203] it is still considered a derogatory term by many.[205]
In the state's largest urban areas, pockets ofjazz culture flourish,[207] andAfrican American,Mexican American, andAsian American communities produce music and art of their respective cultures.[208] The Oklahoma Mozart Festival inBartlesville is one of the largest classical music festivals on the Southern Plains,[209] and Oklahoma City's Festival of the Arts has been named one of the top fine arts festivals in the nation.[207]
Prominent theatre companies in Oklahoma include, in the capital city,Lyric Theatre of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City Theatre Company, Carpenter Square Theatre,Oklahoma Shakespeare in the Park, and CityRep. CityRep is a professional company affording equity points to those performers and technical theatre professionals. In Tulsa, Oklahoma's oldest resident professional company is American Theatre Company, andTheatre Tulsa is the oldestcommunity theatre company west of the Mississippi. Other companies in Tulsa includeHeller Theatre and Tulsa Spotlight Theater. The cities of Norman, Lawton, and Stillwater, among others, also host well-reviewed community theatre companies.
Oklahoma is in the nation's middle percentile in per capita spending on the arts, ranking 17th, and contains more than 300 museums.[207] ThePhilbrook Museum of Tulsa is considered one of the top 50fine art museums in the United States,[206] and theSam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History in Norman, one of the largest university-based art and history museums in the country, documents the natural history of the region.[207] The collections ofThomas Gilcrease are housed in theGilcrease Museum of Tulsa, which also holds the world's largest, most comprehensive collection of art and artifacts of the American West.[223]
The Egyptian art collection at theMabee-Gerrer Museum of Art in Shawnee is considered to be the finest Egyptian collection betweenChicago and Los Angeles.[224] TheOklahoma City Museum of Art contains the most comprehensive collection of glass sculptures by artistDale Chihuly in the world,[225] and Oklahoma City'sNational Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum documents the heritage of the American Western frontier.[207] With remnants of theHolocaust and artifacts relevant to Judaism, the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art of Tulsa preserves the largest collection of Jewish art in the Southwest United States.[226]
Oklahoma's centennial celebration was named the top event in the United States for 2007 by theAmerican Bus Association,[227] and consisted of multiple celebrations saving with the 100th anniversary ofstatehood on November 16, 2007. Annual ethnic festivals and events take place throughout the state such as ceremonial events, include festivals (as examples) inScottish,Irish,German,Italian,Vietnamese,Chinese,Czech,Jewish,Arab,Mexican and African-American communities depicting cultural heritage or traditions.
Oklahoma City is home to a few reoccurring events and festivals. During a ten-day run in Oklahoma City, theState Fair of Oklahoma attracts roughly one million people[228] along with the annual Festival of the Arts. Such as various Latin American andAsian heritage festivals, and cultural festivals such as theJuneteenth celebrations are held in Oklahoma City each year. The Oklahoma CityPride Parade has been held annually in late June since 1987 in the gay district of Oklahoma City on39th and Penn.[229] The First Friday Art Walk in thePaseo Arts District is an art appreciation festival held the first Friday of every month.[230] Additionally, an annual art festival is held in the Paseo on Memorial Day Weekend.[231]
TheTulsa State Fair attracts more than a million people each year during its ten-day run,[232] and the city's Mayfest festival entertained more than 375,000 in four days during 2007.[233] In 2006, Tulsa'sOktoberfest was named one of the top 10 in the world byUSA Today.
Norman plays host to theNorman Music Festival, a festival that highlights native Oklahoma bands and musicians. Norman is also host to the Medieval Fair of Norman, which has been held annually since 1976 and was Oklahoma's first medieval fair. The Fair was held first on the south oval of the University of Oklahoma campus and in the third year moved to the Duck Pond in Norman until the Fair became too big and moved to Reaves Park in 2003. The Medieval Fair of Norman is Oklahoma's "largest weekend event and the third-largest event in Oklahoma, and was selected by Events Media Network as one of the top 100 events in the nation".[234]
TheOklahoma City Thunder moved there in 2008, becoming its first permanent major-league team in any sport.
Collegiate athletics are a popular draw in the state. The state has four schools that compete at the highest level of college sports,NCAA Division I. TheOklahoma Sooners participate in theSoutheastern Conference,[238] and theOklahoma State Cowboys and Cowgirls participate in theBig 12 Conference.[239] The Big 12 and SEC are two of the so-calledPower Four conferences of the top tier of college football,Division I FBS. The Sooners and Cowboys average well over 50,000 fans attending their football games, and Oklahoma's football program ranked 12th in attendance among American colleges in 2010, with an average of 84,738 people attending its home games.[240] The two universities meet several times each year in rivalry matches known as theBedlam Series, which are some of the greatest sporting draws to the state.Sports Illustrated magazine rates Oklahoma and Oklahoma State among the top colleges for athletics in the nation.[241][242]
RegularLPGA tournaments are held at Cedar Ridge Country Club in Tulsa, andmajor championships for thePGA or LPGA have been played atSouthern Hills Country Club in Tulsa, Oak Tree Country Club in Oklahoma City, and Cedar Ridge Country Club in Tulsa.[250] Rated one of the top golf courses in the nation, Southern Hills has hosted fivePGA Championships, including one in 2022, and threeU.S. Opens, the most recent in 2001.[251]Rodeos are popular throughout the state, andGuymon, in the state's panhandle, hosts one of the largest in the nation.[252]
Cancer Treatment Centers of America at Southwestern Regional Medical Center, Tulsa
Oklahoma was the 21st-largest recipient of medical funding from the federal government in 2005, with health-related federal expenditures in the state totaling $75,801,364;immunizations,bioterrorism preparedness, and health education were the top three most funded medical items.[257] Instances of major diseases are near the national average in Oklahoma, and the state ranks at or slightly above the rest of the country in percentage of people withasthma,diabetes, cancer, andhypertension.[257]
In 2000, Oklahoma ranked 45th in physicians per capita and slightly below the national average in nurses per capita, but was slightly above the national average in hospital beds per 100,000 people and above the national average in net growth of health services over a twelve-year period.[258] One of the worst states for percentage of insured people, nearly 25 percent of Oklahomans between the age of 18 and 64 did not have health insurance in 2005, the fifth-highest rate in the nation.[259]
Oklahomans are in the upper half of Americans in terms ofobesity prevalence, and the state is the 5th most obese in the nation, with 30.3 percent of its population at or near obesity.[260] Oklahoma ranked last among the 50 states in a 2007 study by theCommonwealth Fund on health care performance.[261]
TheOU Medical Center, Oklahoma's largest collection of hospitals, is the only hospital in the state designated a LevelItrauma center by theAmerican College of Surgeons. OU Medical Center is on the grounds of the Oklahoma Health Center in Oklahoma City, the state's largest concentration of medical research facilities.[262][263]
The Cancer Treatment Centers of America at Southwestern Regional Medical Center in Tulsa is one of four such regional facilities nationwide, offering cancer treatment to the entire southwestern United States, and is one of the largest cancer treatment hospitals in the country.[264] The largestosteopathic teaching facility in the nation,Oklahoma State University Medical Center at Tulsa, also rates as one of the largest facilities in the field ofneuroscience.[265][266]On June 26, 2018, Oklahoma mademarijuana legal for medical purposes, making it one of the most conservative states to approve medical marijuana.[267]
The residents of Oklahoma havea lower life expectancy than the U.S. national average. In 2014, males in Oklahoma lived an average of 73.7 years compared to a male national average of 76.7 years and females lived an average of 78.5 years compared to a female national average of 81.5 years. Moreover, increases in life expectancy have been below the national average. Male life expectancy in Oklahoma between 1980 and 2014, increased by an average of 4.0 years, compared to a male national average of a 6.7 year increase. Life expectancy for females in Oklahoma between 1980 and 2014, increased by 1.0 years, compared to a female national average of a 4.0 year increase.[268]
Using 2016–2018 data, theRobert Wood Johnson Foundation calculated that life expectancy (all sexes) for Oklahoma counties ranged from 71.2 years forOkfuskee County to 79.7 years forCimarron andLogan counties. Life expectancy for the state as a whole was 76.0 years.[269]
As of December 22, 2022, Oklahoma has been impacted more by theCovid pandemic (2020–2023) than the average U.S. state. Statistics for the U.S. as a whole are 331 deaths per 100,000 population with 68 percent of the population fully vaccinated. The comparable statistics for Oklahoma are 405 deaths per 100,000 population with 59 percent of the population fully vaccinated; 16,041 deaths from Covid have been recorded in Oklahoma. A wide variation in deaths from Covid exists among Oklahoma counties.Greer County recorded the highest death rate of .00753 (753 deaths per 100,000 residents).Payne County recorded the lowest death rate of .00231 (231 deaths per 100,000 residents).[270]
The second-largest newspaper in Oklahoma, theTulsa World, has a circulation of 189,789.[271]
Oklahoma City and Tulsa are the 45th- and 61st-largestmedia markets in the United States as ranked byNielsen Media Research. The state's third-largest media market, Lawton-Wichita Falls, Texas, is ranked 149th nationally by the agency.[272]Broadcast television in Oklahoma began in 1949 whenKFOR-TV (then WKY-TV) in Oklahoma City andKOTV-TV in Tulsa began broadcasting a few months apart.[273] Currently, all major Americanbroadcast networks have affiliated television stations in the state.[274]
The state has two primary newspapers.The Oklahoman, based in Oklahoma City, is the largest newspaper in the state and 54th-largest in the nation by circulation, with a weekday readership of 138,493 and a Sunday readership of 202,690. TheTulsa World, the second-most widely circulated newspaper in Oklahoma and 79th in the nation, holds a Sunday circulation of 132,969 and a weekday readership of 93,558.[271] Oklahoma's first newspaper was established in 1844, called theCherokee Advocate, and was written in bothCherokee and English.[275] In 2006, there were more than 220 newspapers in the state, including 177 with weekly publications and 48 with daily publications.[275]
The state's first radio station,WKY in Oklahoma City, began broadcasting in 1920.[276] In 2006, there were more than 500 radio stations in Oklahoma broadcasting with various local or nationally owned networks. Five universities in Oklahoma operate non-commercial, public radio stations/networks.[277]
Oklahoma has a few ethnic-oriented TV stations broadcasting in Spanish andAsian languages, and there is some Native American programming.TBN, a Christian religious television network, has a studio in Tulsa, and built its first entirely TBN-owned affiliate in Oklahoma City in 1980.[278]
More than 12,000 miles (19,000 km) of roads make up the state's major highway skeleton, including state-operated highways, tenturnpikes or major toll roads,[279] and the longest drivable stretch ofRoute 66 in the nation.[280] In 2008, Interstate 44 in Oklahoma City was Oklahoma's busiest highway, with a daily traffic volume of 123,300 cars.[281] In 2010, the state had the nation's third-highest number of bridges classified as structurally deficient, with nearly 5,212 bridges in disrepair, including 235 National Highway System Bridges.[282]
Oklahoma's largest commercial airport isWill Rogers World Airport in Oklahoma City, averaging a yearly passenger count of more than 3.5 million (1.7 million boardings) in 2010.[283]Tulsa International Airport, the state's second-largest commercial airport, served more than 1.3 million boardings in 2010.[284] Between the two, six airlines operate in Oklahoma.[285][286] In terms of traffic,R. L. Jones Jr. (Riverside) Airport in Tulsa is the state's busiest airport, with 335,826 takeoffs and landings in 2008.[287] Oklahoma has more than 150 public-use airports.[288]
Oklahoma is connected to the nation's rail network viaAmtrak'sHeartland Flyer, its only regional passenger rail line. It currently stretches fromOklahoma City toFort Worth, Texas. Lawmakers began seeking funding in early 2007 to connect theHeartland Flyer toTulsa,[289] but nothing came of this. In June 2023, following studies and negotiations, Oklahoma and Kansas state officials began seeking federal approval and funding to extend theHeartland Flyer from Oklahoma City toNewton, Kansas. The two locations are currently connected by an Amtrak Thruway Bus route that includes a stop inWichita, Kansas.[290] In November 2023, KDOT said the service would start in 2029 if approved, but could begin sooner were the project to be fast tracked.[291]
Oklahoma hascapital punishment as a legal sentence, and the state has had (between 1976 through mid-2011) the highest per capita execution rate in the nation.[295] Authorized methods of execution include theelectric chair, thegas chamber and thefiring squad.[296]
In a 2020 study, Oklahoma was ranked as the 14th most difficult state for citizens to vote in.[297] In May 2020, it became the first state to enact ananti-red flag law, prohibiting the acceptance of any grants or funding to enact red flag laws.[298][299]Abortion in Oklahoma is illegal in nearly all circumstances.[300]
TheLegislature of Oklahoma consists of theSenate and theHouse of Representatives. As the lawmaking branch of the state government, it is responsible for raising and distributing the money necessary to run the government. The Senate has 48 members serving four-year terms, while the House has 101 members with two-year terms. The state has aterm limit for its legislature that restricts any one person to twelve cumulative years service between both legislative branches.[301][302]
Oklahoma's judicial branch consists of theOklahoma Supreme Court, theOklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals, and 77 District Courts that each serve one county. The Oklahoma judiciary also contains two independent courts: a Court ofImpeachment (forimpeachment trials) and theOklahoma Court on the Judiciary. Oklahoma has two courts of last resort: the state Supreme Court hears civil cases, and the state Court of Criminal Appeals hears criminal cases (this split system exists only in Oklahoma and neighboring Texas). Judges of those two courts, as well as the Court of Civil Appeals are appointed by the governor upon the recommendation of the state Judicial Nominating Commission, and are subject to anon-partisan retention vote on a six-year rotating schedule.[301]
The executive branch consists of thegovernor, their staff, and other elected officials. The principal head of government, the governor is the chief executive of the Oklahoma executive branch, serving as theex officioCommander-in-chief of theOklahoma National Guard when not called intoFederal use and reserving the power to veto bills passed through the legislature. The responsibilities of the Executive branch include submitting the budget, ensuring state laws are enforced, and ensuring peace within the state is preserved.[303]
The state is divided into 77counties that govern locally, each headed by a three-member council of elected commissioners, a tax assessor, clerk,court clerk, treasurer, andsheriff.[304] While each municipality operates as a separate and independent local government with executive, legislative and judicial power, county governments maintain jurisdiction over both incorporated cities and non-incorporated areas within their boundaries, and have executive power but no legislative or judicial power. Both county and municipal governments collect taxes, employ a separate police force, hold elections, and operate emergency response services within their jurisdiction.[97][305] Other local government units includeschool districts, technology center districts, community college districts, rural fire departments, rural water districts, and other special use districts.
Thirty-nine Native American tribal governments are based in Oklahoma, each holding limited powers within designated areas. WhileIndian reservations are typical in most of the United States, they are not present in Oklahoma, tribal governments hold land granted during the Indian Territory era, but with limited jurisdiction and no control over state governing bodies such as municipalities and counties. Tribal governments are recognized by the United States as quasi-sovereign entities with executive, judicial, and legislative powers over tribal members and functions, but are subject to the authority of theUnited States Congress to revoke or withhold certain powers. The tribal governments are required to submit a constitution and any subsequent amendments to the United States Congress for approval.[306][307]
Oklahoma has 11 substate districts including the two large Councils of Governments, INCOG in Tulsa (Indian Nations Council of Governments) and ACOG (Association of Central Oklahoma Governments).
During the first half-century of statehood, Oklahoma was considered aDemocratic stronghold, being carried by theRepublican Party in only two presidential elections (1920 and1928). After the1948 election, the state turned firmly Republican. Although registered Republicans were a minority in the state until 2015,[308] Oklahoma has been carried by Republican presidential candidates in all but one election since 1952:Lyndon B. Johnson's1964 landslide victory. Every single county in the state has been won by the Republican candidate in each election since2004. In fact, it was the only state whereBarack Obama failed to carry any counties in2008. Oklahoma City was the largest city in the United States carried by Republican Donald Trump in both the 2016 and 2020 elections.
Democrats are strongest in urban areas, such as the inner parts of Oklahoma City and Tulsa, as well as thecollege towns of Norman and Stillwater, and areas which are most heavilyAfrican American. The party once held dominance in the eastern part of the state andLittle Dixie before the area gradually shifted Republican in the late 2000s. As of the 2020 election, Native American voters, 16% of the state's population, are split, with urban populations supporting the Democrats and rural reservation populaces favoring the Republicans.[309]
Following the2000 census, the Oklahoma delegation to theU.S. House of Representatives was reduced from six to five representatives, each serving onecongressional district. Oklahoma has had an all-Republican congressional delegation since 2021 and previously from 2013 to 2019.
Voter registration and party enrollment as of October 31, 2024[310]
State law codifies Oklahoma's state emblems and honorary positions;[329] the Oklahoma Senate or House of Representatives may adopt resolutions designating others for special events and to benefit organizations. In 2012 the House passed HCR 1024, which would change the state motto from "Labor Omnia Vincit" to "Oklahoma—In God We Trust!" The author of the resolution stated a constituent researched the Oklahoma Constitution and found no "official" vote regarding "Labor Omnia Vincit", therefore opening the door for an entirely new motto.[330][331]
^Determined by a survey by the Pew Research Center in 2008. Percentages represent claimed religious beliefs, not necessarily membership in any particular congregation. Figures have a ±5percent margin of error.[129]
^ab"The Cherokee Nation & its Language"(PDF).University of Minnesota: Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition. 2008. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on July 14, 2014. RetrievedMay 22, 2014.
^Wright, Muriel (June 1936)."Chronicles of Oklahoma". Oklahoma State University. Archived fromthe original on October 13, 2007. RetrievedJuly 31, 2007.
^Carter, Samuel (III) (1976).Cherokee sunset: A nation betrayed: a narrative of travail and triumph, persecution and exile. New York: Doubleday, p. 232.
^Oklahoma Commission (February 28, 2001),"Final Report"(PDF),Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921, Tulsa, Oklahoma, archived from the original on June 2, 2018, retrievedJune 20, 2018{{citation}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^"About Us".Greenwood Cultural Center. 2019. Archived fromthe original on August 22, 2020. RetrievedMarch 26, 2020.
^Hoffhaus, Charles E. (1984).Chez les Canses: three centuries at Kawsmouth: the French foundations of metropolitan Kansas City. Kansas City: Lowell Press.ISBN0-913504-91-2.OCLC12314083.
^Joe Wertz (September 6, 2018)."Oklahoma Wind Farms Mapped".StateImpact Oklahoma | Environment, Education, Energy, Health and Justice: Policy to People. Oklahoma Public Media Exchange.
^Jordan-Bychkov, Terry G. (2003).The Upland South: The Making of an American Folk Region and Landscape. University Press of Virginia.ISBN978-1-930066-08-3.
^"Home Page".Oral Roberts Golden Eagles. RetrievedAugust 23, 2024. Move the cursor over "Sports" on the menu to see a list of varsity sports; football is not listed.
^"Home Page".Great American Conference. RetrievedAugust 23, 2024. Move the cursor over "Member Institutions" on the menu to see a list of members; six members are from Oklahoma.
Baird, W. David; Danney Goble (1994).The Story of Oklahoma. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN978-0-8061-2650-0.
Dale, Edward Everett; Morris L. Wardell (1948).History of Oklahoma. New York: Prentice-Hall. Archived fromthe original on July 21, 2012. RetrievedSeptember 7, 2017.
Gibson, Arrell Morgan (1981).Oklahoma: A History of Five Centuries (2nd ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN978-0-8061-1758-4.
Goble, Danney (1980).Progressive Oklahoma: The Making of a New Kind of State. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN978-0-8061-1510-8.
Jones, Stephen (1974).Oklahoma Politics in State and Nation (vol. 1 (1907–62) ed.). Enid, Okla.: Haymaker Press.
Joyce, Davis D., ed. (1994).An Oklahoma I Had Never Seen Before: Alternative Views of Oklahoma History. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN978-0-8061-2599-2.
Morgan, Anne Hodges; Morgan, H. Wayne, eds. (1982).Oklahoma: New Views of the Forty-sixth State. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN978-0-8061-1651-8.
Morris, John W.; Charles R. Goins; Edwin C. McReynolds (1986).Historical Atlas of Oklahoma (3rd ed.). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN978-0-8061-1991-5.
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