Okinawa Prefecture (Japanese:沖縄県,Hepburn:Okinawa-ken;pronounced[o.kʲi.na.wa(ꜜ.keɴ)];[2]Okinawan:沖縄県,romanized: Uchinaachin[3]) is the southernmost and westernmost prefecture ofJapan.[4] It consists of three main island groups—theOkinawa Islands, theSakishima Islands, and theDaitō Islands—spread across a maritime zone approximately 1,000 kilometers east to west and 400 kilometers north to south. Despite a modest land area of 2,281 km2 (880 sq mi), Okinawa's territorial extent over surrounding seas makes its total area nearly half the combined size ofHonshu,Shikoku, andKyushu.[5] Of its 160islands, 49 are inhabited.[6] The largest and most populous island is Okinawa Island, which hosts the capital city,Naha, as well as major urban centers such asOkinawa,Uruma, andUrasoe.[7] The prefecture has asubtropical climate, characterized by warm temperatures and high rainfall throughout the year.[8] People from theNansei Islands, includingOkinawa, theSakishima Islands,[9][10] and parts ofKagoshima Prefecture,[11] are often collectively referred to asRyukyuans.[12] However, there are significant cultural and customary differences between individual islands and even between local communities.[13][14][15]
Historically the center of theRyukyu Kingdom, Okinawa long served as a maritime trading hub and cultural gateway; the kingdom participated in theChinese tributary system—maintaining formal tribute relations with theMing andQing—and retained distinct statehood until it was incorporated into Japan as Okinawa Prefecture in 1879 following theRyukyu Disposition.[16][17] After theBattle of Okinawa (1945), the islands were under U.S. administration until reversion to Japan in 1972, and today host a large share of U.S. military facilities in Japan (around 70% by area of land exclusively used by U.S. forces), a continuing source of local and national debate.[18] A small but persistentindependence movement exists, reflecting Okinawa's distinct historical trajectory and identity.[19]
Over time, Okinawa developed its own distinctive traditions, cuisine, and performing arts. Today,Okinawan music, characterized by the iconicsanshin instrument,[20] and festivals such asEisa have gained popularity across the country.[21][22] The islands are also the birthplace ofkarate, later popularized on the Japanese mainland and worldwide.[23] The prefectural economy is predominantly service-based, withtourism and related services as major drivers, while manufacturing plays a comparatively small role.[24][25]
The prehistoric history of Okinawa differs significantly from that of mainland Japan. Prior to written records, it is generally divided into two periods:the Paleolithic era andthe Shellmidden period (Kaizuka period).[26]: 14 The earliest evidence of human activity in Okinawa includes theYamashita Cave Man, dating back approximately 32,000 years, and theMinatogawa Man from around 18,000 years ago.[26]: 14 In 2012, the world's oldest known fishhook was discovered in theSakitari Cave site inNanjo City, Okinawa Prefecture.[27]
TheShellmidden Period in Okinawa roughly corresponds to theJōmon throughHeian periods of mainlandJapan, with a chronological gap of about 10,000 years from the Paleolithic era.[28]
However, by the middle of theShellmidden Period, Okinawan pottery began to exhibit clearly localized characteristics. Examples include the Iha and Ogido pottery styles, which are distinct to the region.[28]
In contrast to the Shellmidden culture of Okinawa Island, which was influenced primarily by mainland Japan, the prehistoric cultures of theMiyako andYaeyama Islands were shaped more significantly by southern cultures, including those from thePhilippines.[30]: 19
From the 12th century onward, Okinawa entered theGusuku period, characterized by the development of anagrarian society. During this time, populations moved from coastal dunes to more fertile limestone plateaus, leading to significant population growth and the beginnings of international trade.[30]: 24 Local chieftains, known asAji, constructed fortified residences calledGusuku to protect their territories and expand their influence through foreign trade.[30]: 26 Gusuku sites are found throughout the Ryukyu Islands, from the Amami Islands in the north to the Yaeyama Islands in the south, with estimates ranging from 300 to 400 sites in total. Early Gusuku were generally small, covering about 1,000 square meters, but larger fortresses appeared in later periods.[26]: 48
According to official histories compiled by the royal government inShuri—such as theChūzan Seikan,Chūzan Seifu, andKyūyō—the first royal lineage of Ryukyu was the legendaryTenson dynasty. After internal conflict during its 25th generation, a local Aji namedShunten fromUrasoe was supported by the people, quelled the unrest, and was crowned as the first king of the Ryukyu Kingdom.[30]: 30 However, these early historical accounts are heavily mythologized, and even if Shunten was a real historical figure, he likely ruled only the Urasoe area as an Aji.[30]: 30 The Shunten dynasty lasted for three generations before being overthrown by theEiso dynasty, which in turn was replaced by theSatto dynasty after four generations. By this time, Okinawa Island had effectively split into the three kingdoms of Hokuzan, Chūzan, and Nanzan.[30]: 34
In 1372, the Ming dynasty of China dispatched an envoy,Yang Zai, to the Kingdom of Chūzan, requesting the king,Satto, to enter into a tributary relationship. Satto agreed, and soon after, the kings of Nanzan (Chōsatto) and Hokuzan (Hanishi) also began paying tribute to the Ming court, bringing all three kingdoms into theChinese tributary system.[30]: 36
In 1406, the Aji of Sashiki,Shō Hashi, overthrew KingBunei of the Satto dynasty and installed his father,Shō Shishō, as king, establishing theFirst Shō Dynasty.[30]: 42 In 1416, Shō Hashi capitalized on dissatisfaction among the Aji of Hokuzan with their king,Hananchi, and conquered the kingdom. The Kingdom of Nanzan, plagued by internal conflict under the rule ofTarumoi, was defeated by Shō Hashi in 1429, completing the unification of Okinawa Island under the Chūzan Kingdom.[30]: 42
Enkaku-ji, the royal mausoleum temple of the Second Shō Dynasty
TheFirst Shō Dynasty experienced political instability due to the early deaths of several kings. After the death of the fifth king,Shō Kinpuku, a succession dispute known as theShirii-Tumui rebellion broke out. Order was eventually restored whenShō Taikyū ascended as the sixth king.[30]: 45 During his reign, another major conflict, theGosamaru–Amawari rebellion, occurred, but Shō Taikyū was able to suppress it.[30]: 46 His successor, KingShō Toku, was known as a tyrant. After his death, a coup led by royal officials installed the high-ranking bureaucrat Kanemaru as king.[26]: 89 Kanemaru took the royal nameShō En, founding theSecond Shō Dynasty.[30]: 48
Under the rule of the third king of the dynasty,Shō Shin, a centralized administration was firmly established. Shō Shin relocated powerful regional chieftains (Aji) to the capital ofShuri and appointed state officials to govern the provinces directly. The territorial extent of the Ryukyu Kingdom also expanded, covering the area from theAmami Islands in the north to theYaeyama Islands in the south.[30]: 48 Culturally, this era was a golden age for the kingdom, with significant development in the arts, religion, and architecture.[30]: 53
By actively participating in thetribute system with theMing dynasty, the Ryukyu Kingdom received preferential treatment and became a key intermediary trading hub in East Asia. Many of the tribute goods presented to China originated from Japan, while Chinese goods were exported to Japan through Ryukyu.[30]: 56 Southeast Asia, China, and Japan were Ryukyu's primary trade partners,[30]: 59 and the kingdom also maintained trade with theKorean Peninsula.[30]: 58 However, Ryukyu's significance as a trade hub declined in the 16th century with theAge of Discovery, as Portuguese and Spanish merchants entered East Asia, and China gradually relaxed its maritime prohibition policies.[30]: 60
TheMiyako Islands andYaeyama Islands had long been politically fragmented. In 1474, local strongmanNakasone Toyomiya of Miyako Island submitted to the Ryukyu Kingdom, bringing the island under centralized control.[30]: 64 In 1500, Ryukyuan forces defeatedOyake Akahachi, the ruler ofIshigaki Island.[30]: 66 In 1522, Nakasone Toyomiya conqueredYonaguni Island, completing the unification of the Yaeyama Islands under Ryukyuan rule.[30]: 68 The Amami Islands in the north also came under Ryukyuan control by 1466.[30]: 70
In 1609, theShimazu clan of theSatsuma Domain invaded the Ryukyu Kingdom in what is known as theInvasion of Ryukyu. KingShō Nei surrendered, and the kingdom became a vassal state under Satsuma's control. The Amami Islands were ceded to Satsuma as part of the settlement.[26]: 133 While Ryukyu was partially integrated into Japan's feudalhan system, it continued to function as a nominally independent kingdom and maintained its tributary relationship with China.[30]: 85 Ryukyuan sovereignty was maintained since complete annexation would have created a conflict with China. The Satsuma clan earned considerable profits from trade with China during a period in which foreign trade was heavily restricted by the shogunate. Although Satsuma maintained strong influence over the islands, the Ryukyu Kingdom maintained a considerable degree of domestic political freedom for over two hundred years.[31]
In the mid-17th century, the Ryukyuan reformerHaneji Chōshū implemented significant political and social reforms promoting pro-Japanese policies.[26]: 152 In the mid-18th century,Sai On, a statesman and scholar, continued these reforms and greatly improved the internal administration of the kingdom.[30]: 101
In 1816, two British ships visited Ryukyu but made no demands for trade or missionary activity.[30]: 131 In 1844, France became the first European country to officially request trade with Ryukyu.[30]: 132 In 1853,Commodore Matthew Perry of the United StatesEast India Squadron stopped in Ryukyu prior to his negotiations with the Tokugawa shogunate in Japan.[30]: 138
Following theMeiji Restoration, Japan began its modernization process by abolishing thehan system and establishing prefectures in 1871. That same year, theMudan Incident occurred when a Ryukyuan ship drifted toTaiwan and its crew was killed by local indigenous people. This event became a pretext for Japan to assert control over the Ryukyu Kingdom. In 1872, Japan reclassified the kingdom as theRyukyu Domain, a move known as theRyukyu Disposition. To avoid backlash from theQing dynasty and Ryukyuan royalty, the Meiji government initially designated Ryukyu as a "domain" rather than a "prefecture", a designation that had already been abolished in mainland Japan.[30]: 147
In 1874, another Ryukyuan shipwreck incident led to theTaiwan Expedition of 1874 (theBotan War), in which Japan dispatched troops to Taiwan. During post-conflict negotiations, the Qing acknowledged Japan's actions as "a righteous act of protecting its people." Japan interpreted this as de facto recognition of Ryukyu as Japanese territory and subsequently ordered the Ryukyu Domain to cease its tribute missions to China. This triggered internal division within the Ryukyuan court between pro-Japan and pro-China factions.[30]: 151
In March 1879, the Japanese government officially abolished the Ryukyu Domain and established Okinawa Prefecture, relocating KingShō Tai toTokyo. Some Ryukyuan nobles and civilians fled to China and appealed to the Qing government to restore the Ryukyu Kingdom. Resistance in the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands was especially strong, culminating in theKōchi Incident, in which locals killed a Japanese interpreter. However, the rebellion was eventually suppressed.[30]: 151
The Qing dynasty invited former U.S. PresidentUlysses S. Grant to mediate the dispute. Grant proposed a compromise in which the Okinawa Islands would go to Japan, while the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands would be ceded to China. The Qing countered with a plan that would return the Ryukyu Kingdom to the Okinawa Islands, assign the Amami Islands to Japan, and annex the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands to China. Ultimately, the negotiations failed. After theFirst Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the Qing cededTaiwan to Japan and lost influence in the region, silencing calls for the restoration of Ryukyu.[30]: 154
In the early years of direct Japanese rule, a policy known as the Old Customs Preservation Policy (旧慣温存政策,Kyūkan Onzon Seisaku) was implemented, maintaining Ryukyuan land and tax systems, which slowed Okinawa's modernization.[30]: 156 After the First Sino-Japanese War, Japan replaced this policy with an assimilation strategy, accelerating Okinawa's Japanization. However, Okinawa's strategic and economic importance declined, particularly after Taiwan became Japan's new southern frontier and sugar-producing center.[30]: 161
In the 20th century, Japan undertook major land reforms and prioritized sugar production in Okinawa, though economic development remained far behind mainland Japan.[30]: 164 Transportation infrastructure also modernized, with new roads, railways, and ferry routes to the Japanese mainland established in the early 1900s.[30]: 182 During the earlyTaishō era, Okinawa briefly prospered as sugar prices soared due toWorld War I.[30]: 187 However, by the late Taishō and earlyShōwa era, theGreat Depression struck, causing widespread famine. Many impoverished farmers resorted to eating the toxiccycad plant to survive, in what became known as the "Cycad Hell" (Sotetsu Jigoku (蘇鉄地獄)).[32]: 153 Many Okinawans migrated to mainland Japan or abroad. Between 1923 and 1930, Okinawans accounted for 10% of all Japanese emigrants. Remittances from overseas workers contributed 40% to 65% of the prefecture's annual budget.[30]: 190
In the 1930s, Japan increasingly pursued a path of militarism. By the 1940s, Okinawa Prefecture was integrated into the wartime regime. The government enforced standard Japanese language use and replaced traditional Ryukyuan name pronunciations with Japanese ones as part of a broaderimperial assimilation policy.[30]: 209
In 1943, the Japanese military began seizing land in Okinawa to build airbases. In 1944, the32nd Army was stationed in Okinawa, requisitioning resources from civilians and initiating evacuations to mainland Japan and Taiwan.[30]: 214 In August 1944, the evacuation shipTsushima Maru, carrying about 1,700 evacuees, was sunk by an American submarine, resulting in 1,476 deaths.[30]: 215 In October that same year, Naha was bombed in the10-10 air raids, destroying 90% of the city.[33]
In 1945, Okinawa became the site of the largest ground battle on Japanese soil during thePacific War. TheBattle of Okinawa resulted in the deaths of approximately 12,520 American soldiers and an estimated 200,000 Japanese personnel, including military and civilians.[34]
TheUnited States military landed on the coast of Yomitan Village, Okinawa Island, on April 1 and quickly secured control over the northern half of the island. The Japanese forces, facing overwhelming American attacks, retreated to the southern part of the island.Shuri Castle, which served as the headquarters of the Japanese command, was destroyed, and on June 23, organized resistance ended with the suicide of Lieutenant General Mitsuru Ushijima, the commanding officer of the Okinawan defense forces, and other high-ranking staff at Mabuni.[35][36]
Over approximately three months of intense fighting, a large number of civilians were killed as a result of Americannaval bombardment that affected residential areas, extensiveaerial bombing, and the use of flamethrowers against natural caves (gama) and civilian air-raid shelters. Additionally, there were numerous instances of group suicides among civilians, driven in part by fear of American capture. It is estimated that one in four residents of Okinawa perished, and the island was left devastated.[37][30]
During World War II, theAllied powers engaged in multiple rounds of discussions regarding the postwar status of the Ryukyu Islands. At theCairo Conference in 1943, U.S. PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt proactively raised the issue of Ryukyu's sovereignty, suggesting that China might administer the islands after the war. However, Chinese leaderChiang Kai-shek responded only cautiously, proposing instead a joint occupation and international trusteeship. As a result, theCairo Declaration made no explicit reference to the Ryukyus, instead stating that territories such asTaiwan and thePescadores—seized by Japan—should be returned to China. Historians believe Chiang hesitated because he was unsure whether Roosevelt's offer was sincere or a diplomatic probe, and because the wartimeNationalist government relied heavily on American support and wished to avoid a territorial dispute.
As the Pacific War progressed, the U.S. military increasingly emphasized the strategic importance of the Ryukyus. In 1944, some U.S. officials proposed exclusive control of the islands to serve as a bulwark against Soviet expansion and threats from the Asian mainland. Roosevelt reportedly expressed toJoseph Stalin his support for returning the Ryukyus to China, but no formal agreements emerged from the Cairo,Yalta, orPotsdam meetings. ThePotsdam Declaration stated only that Japanese sovereignty would be limited to the islands ofHonshu,Kyushu,Shikoku, andHokkaido, while other territories—including the Ryukyus—would be subject to future decisions by the Allied powers.[38][39]
After the war, the Nationalist government of China recognized the strategic value of the Ryukyu Islands and proposed a joint trusteeship with the United States for a period of five to ten years. Later proposals included allowing the U.S. to establish bases on some islands, indicating a willingness to compromise and an understanding that the U.S. would not readily transfer sovereignty to China. Chinese domestic opinion was divided: some called for an independent Ryukyuan state, others demanded the full incorporation of the Ryukyus into Chinese territory. Most emphasized the islands' strategic importance as a buffer zone and argued they should not fall into the hands of another power.[38]
In 1946, theUnited States Department of State advocated for the return of the Ryukyus to Japan, citing anti-expansion principles and concerns over economic burdens. In contrast, the U.S. military proposed that the islands be designated as a "strategic trust territory," with Okinawa Island declared a "strategic area." Military leaders argued that the high cost of American lives during theBattle of Okinawa justified permanent military governance as compensation for their sacrifice. After internal debate, the plan was formalized in SWNCC 59 / 1, which proposed placing Okinawa under U.S. military administration rather than returning it to Japan, using trusteeship arrangements to sidestep sovereignty issues. The directivesSCAPIN-677 andSCAPIN-841 established the legal and administrative basis for U.S. jurisdiction south of the 29th parallel north, forming the framework for postwar American control.[39]
On April 1, 1945, theU.S. Army andMarine Corps launched an invasion of Okinawa with approximately 185,000 troops. They encountered determined and intense resistance from the Japanese defenders. During the subsequent fighting, approximately one-third of Okinawa's civilian population lost their lives. The dead, of all nationalities, are commemorated at theCornerstone of Peace.[40]
During the mid-1950s, the U.S. seized land from Okinawans to build new bases or expand currently existing ones. According to the Melvin Price Report, by 1955, the military had displaced 250,000 residents.[42]
Since 1960, the U.S. and Japan have maintained an agreement that allows the U.S. to secretly bring nuclear weapons into Japanese ports.[43][44][45] The Japanese people tended to oppose the introduction of nuclear arms into Japanese territory;[46] the Japanese government's assertion ofJapan's non-nuclear policy and a statement of theThree Non-Nuclear Principles reflected this popular opposition. Most of the weapons were alleged to be stored in ammunition bunkers at Kadena Air Base.[47] Between 1954 and 1972, 19 different types of nuclear weapons were deployed in Okinawa, but with fewer than around 1,000 warheads at any one time.[48] In fall 1960, U.S. commandos inGreen Light Teams secret training missions carried small nuclear weapons on the east coast of Okinawa Island.[49]
Between 1965 and 1972, Okinawa was a key staging point for United States in its military operations directed towards North Vietnam. Along with Guam, it presented a geographically strategic launch pad for covert bombing missions over Cambodia and Laos.[50] Anti-Vietnam War sentiment became linked politically to the movement for reversion of Okinawa to Japan. In 1965, the U.S. military bases, earlier viewed as paternal post war protection, were increasingly seen as aggressive. The Vietnam War highlighted the differences between United States and Okinawa but showed a commonality between the islands and mainland Japan.[51]
As controversy grew regarding the alleged placement of nuclear weapons on Okinawa, fears intensified over the escalation of the Vietnam War. Okinawa was perceived by some inside Japan as a potential target for China, should the communist government feel threatened by United States.[52] American military secrecy blocked any local reporting on what was actually occurring at bases such as Kadena Air Base. As information leaked out, and images of air strikes were published, the local population began to fear the potential for retaliation.[51]
Political leaders such asMakoto Oda, a major figure in theBeheiren movement (Foundation of Citizens for Peace in Vietnam), believed that the return of Okinawa to Japan would lead to the removal of U.S. forces, ending Japan's involvement in Vietnam.[53] In a speech delivered in 1967, Oda was critical of Prime MinisterEisaku Satō's unilateral support of America's war in Vietnam, claiming "Realistically we are all guilty of complicity in the Vietnam War".[53] The Beheiren became a more visible anti-war movement on Okinawa as the American involvement in Vietnam intensified. The movement employed tactics ranging from demonstrations to handing leaflets to soldiers, sailors, airmen and Marines directly, warning of the implications for a third World War.[54]
The U.S. military bases on Okinawa became a focal point foranti-Vietnam War sentiment. By 1969, over 50,000 American military personnel were stationed on Okinawa.[55]United States Department of Defense began referring to Okinawa as the "Keystone of the Pacific". This slogan was imprinted on local U.S. military license plates.[56]
In 1969, chemicals leaked from the U.S. storage depot at Chibana in central Okinawa, underOperation Red Hat. Evacuations of residents took place over a wide area for two months. Even two years later, government investigators found that Okinawans and the environment near the leak were still suffering because of the depot.[57]
U.S. military facilities on Okinawa Island (in red)
The U.S. Marine Corps buried a massive stockpile of Agent Orange at the Futenma air station in Okinawa, seriously sickening the base's former head of maintenance and potentially contaminating nearby residents and the ground beneath the base. The barrels were abandoned in Okinawa at the end of the Vietnam War - when the U.S. government banned the dioxin-laden defoliant for health reasons — and were buried at the installation in the city of Ginowan after the Pentagon ignored repeated requests to safely dispose of them, according to the veterans who served at the installation in the 1970s and 1980s.[59]The1995 kidnaping, beating, and rape of a 12-year-old girl by three U.S. servicemen triggered widespread protests in Okinawa. Reports by the local media of accidents and crimes committed by U.S. servicemen have reduced the local population's support for the U.S. military bases. A strong emotional response has emerged from certain incidents.[60]
Documents declassified in 1997 proved that both tactical and strategic weapons have been maintained in Okinawa.[57] In 1999 and 2002, theJapan Times and theOkinawa Times reported speculation that not all weapons were removed from Okinawa.[61][62] On October 25, 2005, after a decade of negotiations, the governments of the U.S. and Japan officially agreed to moveMarine Corps Air Station Futenma from its location in the densely populated city ofGinowan to the more northerly and remoteCamp Schwab inNago by building a heliport with a shorter runway, partly on Camp Schwab land and partly running into the sea.[63] The move is partly an attempt to relieve tensions between the people of Okinawa and the Marine Corps.
Despite Okinawa prefecture constituting only 0.6% of Japan's land surface, in 2006 75% of all USFJ bases were located on Okinawa, occupying 18% of the main island.[63][64]
In a poll conducted byThe Asahi Shimbun in May 2010, 43% of the Okinawan population wanted the complete closure of the U.S. bases, 42% wanted reduction, and 11% wanted to maintain the status quo. Okinawan feelings about the U.S. military are complex.[65]
In early 2008, U.S. Secretary of StateCondoleezza Rice apologized after a series of crimes involving American troops in Japan, including the rape of a young girl of 14 by a Marine on Okinawa. The U.S. military imposed a temporary 24-hour curfew on military personnel and their families to ease the anger of local residents.[66] Some cited statistics that the crime rate of military personnel is consistently less than that of the general Okinawan population.[67] However, some criticized the statistics as unreliable, since violence against women is under-reported.[68] Between 1972 and 2009, U.S. servicemen committed 5,634 criminal offenses, including 25 murders, 385 burglaries, 25 arsons, 127 rapes, 306 assaults and 2,827 thefts.[69] Yet, perMarine Corps Installations Pacific data, U.S. service members are convicted of far fewer crimes than local Okinawans.[70]
In 2009, a new Japanese government came to power and froze the U.S. forces relocation plan but in April 2010 indicated their interest in resolving the issue by proposing a modified plan.[71] A study done in 2010 found that the prolonged exposure to aircraft noise around the Kadena Air Base and other military bases cause health issues such as a disrupted sleep pattern, high blood pressure, weakening of the immune system in children, and a loss of hearing.[72]
In 2011, it was reported that the U.S. military—contrary to repeated denials byThe Pentagon—had kept tens of thousands of barrels ofAgent Orange on the island. The Japanese and American governments have angered some U.S. veterans, who believe they were poisoned by Agent Orange while serving on the island, by characterizing their statements regarding Agent Orange as "dubious", and ignoring their requests for compensation. Reports that more than a third of the barrels developed leaks have led Okinawans to ask for environmental investigations, but as of 2012[update] both Tokyo and Washington refused such action.[73]Jon Mitchell has reported concern that the U.S. used American Marines as chemical-agent guinea pigs.[74]
On September 30, 2018,Denny Tamaki was elected as the next governor of Okinawa prefecture, after a campaign focused on sharply reducing the U.S. military presence on the island.[75]
In 2006, some 8,000 U.S. Marines were removed from the island and relocated toGuam.[76] The move toMarine Corps Base Camp Blaz was expected to be completed in 2023 but as of January 1, 2025, is still in process. Japan paid for a majority of the cost to construct the new base.[77][78] The U.S. still maintains Air Force, Marine, Navy, and Army military installations on the islands. These bases includeKadena Air Base,Camp Foster,Marine Corps Air Station Futenma,Camp Hansen,Camp Schwab,Torii Station,Camp Kinser, andCamp Gonsalves. The area of 14 U.S. bases are 233 square kilometres (90 sq mi), occupying 18% of the main island. Okinawa hosts about two-thirds of the 50,000 American forces in Japan although the islands account for less than one percent of total lands in Japan.[64]
Suburbs have grown towards and now surround two historic major bases, Futenma and Kadena. A sizable portion of the land used by the U.S. military is Camp Gonsalves in the north of the island.[79] On December 21, 2016, 10,000 acres of Camp Gonsalves were returned to Japan.[80] On June 25, 2018, Okinawa residents held a protest demonstration at sea against scheduled land reclamation work for the relocation of a U.S. military base within Japan's southernmost island prefecture. A protest gathered hundreds of people.[81]
Since the early 2000s, Okinawans have opposed the presence of American troopshelipads in theTakae zone of theYanbaru forest nearHigashi andKunigami.[82] This opposition grew in July 2016 after the construction of six new helipads.[83][84]
The islands comprising the prefecture are the southern two thirds of the archipelago of the Ryūkyū Islands (琉球諸島,Ryūkyū-shotō). Okinawa's inhabited islands are typically divided into three geographical archipelagos. From northeast to southwest:
Thedugong is an endangered marine mammal related to themanatee.[86]Iriomote is home to one of the world's rarest and most endangered cat species, theIriomote cat. The region is also home to at least oneendemicpit viper,Trimeresurus elegans. The islands of Okinawa are surrounded by some of the most abundant coral reefs found in the world.[87][88] The world's largest colony of rare blue coral is found offIshigaki Island.[89] Thesea turtles return yearly to the southern islands of Okinawa to lay their eggs. The summer months carry warnings to swimmers regarding venomousjellyfish and other dangerous sea creatures.
The island is largely composed ofcoral, and rainwater filtering through that coral has given the island many caves, which played an important role in the Battle of Okinawa. Gyokusendo[90] is an extensivelimestone cave in the southern part of Okinawa's main island.
Due to its unique historical background, Okinawa has a significantly stronger progressive (left-wing) presence compared to most other Japanese prefectures; this makes it one of the most politically polarized regions in the country. TheOkinawa Social Mass Party, a local progressive political party, has played an important role in postwar Okinawan politics.[92]: 55–71
Since Japan introduced theSingle-member district system in 1996, Okinawa has been divided into four electoral districts for theHouse of Representatives.[95] Among these, Okinawa's 2nd District, which hosts the highest concentration of U.S. military bases, has long been a stronghold for the progressive camp.Kantoku Teruya of the Social Democratic Party held this seat from 2003 onwards. The other three districts have seen fierce competition between conservatives and progressives, with frequent changes in party control.
In the2014 Japanese general election, all four Okinawan districts elected candidates opposed to the relocation of the Futenma base to Nago. In the 1st District,Seiken Akamine of the Japanese Communist Party won a seat—marking the JCP's first single-member district victory in Okinawa and its first nationwide in 18 years.[96]
In the2017 Japanese general election, theLiberal Democratic Party (LDP) won the seat in the 4th District.[97] In the2021 Japanese general election, LDP candidates won in both the 3rd and 4th Districts and also gained proportional representation seats in the 1st and 2nd Districts. The Japanese Communist Party and the Social Democratic Party each retained one seat.[98]
In theHouse of Councillors, Okinawa is represented by two seats in a single at-large district. Both are currently held by politicians who oppose the Futenma base relocation.[99] However, in proportional representation voting, the LDP has consistently received the highest number of votes in Okinawa.[100]
Okinawa has also experienced multiple changes in political leadership throughout its gubernatorial history.[101] In 2014,Takeshi Onaga, backed by progressive forces, was elected governor of Okinawa Prefecture.[102] After Onaga's death in 2018, another progressive candidate,Denny Tamaki, was elected governor in the September 2018 election.[103] Tamaki was re-elected in 2022.[104] However, in recent years, rising tensions across the Taiwan Strait have led to growing unease among Okinawans toward the People's Republic of China, resulting in a loss of momentum for progressive forces.[105]
In terms of administrative jurisdiction, the disputedSenkaku Islands (referred to by China and Taiwan as the Diaoyu Islands) are administered by the city ofIshigaki in Okinawa Prefecture.[107]
According to a 2015 Okinawa Prefectural Government survey, only 9.3% of Okinawans felt an affinity toward the People's Republic of China, while 88.1% did not. Similarly, 90.8% of respondents reported a negative impression of China.[108]
Okinawa has long experienced social and cultural frictions with mainland Japan. In 2016, controversy erupted when police officers fromOsaka Prefecture assigned to duty at U.S. military bases in Okinawa used the derogatory term "dojin" (meaning "savage" or "native") to insult local protestors.[109] According to a 2017NHK survey, only 19% of Okinawans felt that people from mainland Japan understood Okinawan sentiments, while 79.6% believed they did not. Additionally, 56.9% reported an increase in discriminatory or derogatory remarks against Okinawans over the past five years.[110] On the other hand, instances of discrimination against Amerasians (children of mixed Okinawan and American parentage) have also been reported within Okinawa.[111]
Okinawa faces chronic fiscal challenges and relies heavily on subsidies from Japan's central government. Its fiscal capacity index is only 0.29—significantly below the national average.[112]
Although some land used by U.S. military bases has been returned to Japan since Okinawa reverted to Japanese control,[113]: 595 a significant portion remains under American jurisdiction. While Okinawa comprises only 0.6% of Japan's land area, it hosts approximately 74% of all U.S. military facilities in the country.[114] The 33 American bases in Okinawa occupy around 10% of the prefecture's land—up to 18% on Okinawa Island.[115] Approximately 47,300 U.S. military personnel and their families reside in the prefecture.[116]
Among the many military issues, the relocation ofMarine Corps Air Station Futenma has been the most contentious. Due to its proximity to residential areas and repeated accidents, Futenma has been labeled one of the most dangerous military bases in the world. The prefectural government has long called for its relocation outside of Okinawa.[117] In 2010, Japan and the U.S. agreed to relocate the base toCamp Schwab in Nago,[118] sparking widespread protests.
Another key issue is crime involving U.S. military personnel. Between the 1972 reversion and 2015, 5,896 criminal cases involving U.S. forces were reported in Okinawa.[119] In 2016, a high-profile rape and murder case involving a U.S. military contractor inUruma triggered mass protests.[120]
On the other hand, U.S. bases are Okinawa's second-largest source of employment.[121][122]
According to a 2017 NHK survey, 25.7% of Okinawans wanted the complete removal of U.S. military bases, while 50.6% preferred reducing their presence to levels comparable to mainland Japan. Only 26.5% supported relocating Futenma to Nago, while 62.6% were opposed.[110] According to a 2015 prefectural survey, 42.2% of Okinawans reported no affinity toward the U.S., while 55.4% did.[108]
On February 24, 2019, a prefectural referendum was held on land reclamation inHenoko for the new U.S. base. With a turnout of 52.48%, 71.74% opposed the project, 18.99% supported it, and 8.70% expressed no clear opinion.[123]
Headquarters of theKariyushi Club, a group advocating for Ryukyuan independence.
After Japan annexed theRyukyu Kingdom in 1879 during the so-calledRyukyu Disposition, the last king,Shō Tai, was relocated to Tokyo. In the following years, Ryukyuan figures who opposed the new arrangements petitioned theQing dynasty for redress, organizing in treaty-port communities such asFuzhou,Beijing, andTianjin. Contemporary sources referred to some émigrés asdasshinnin (脱清人), who advocated Qing intervention to restore Ryukyuan autonomy or statehood.[124][125] Diplomatic mediation was even sought from former U.S. PresidentUlysses S. Grant in 1879–1880, but negotiations ultimately failed to produce a settlement; the issue receded after theFirst Sino-Japanese War.[126][127][128]
In contemporary politics, independence advocacy persists alongside broader autonomy movements and base-related activism. Polling generally shows limited support for full independence but greater backing for stronger local autonomy; for example, a 2022Okinawa Times survey reported 3% support for independence, 48% for a "strongly empowered" local government, and 42% for maintaining the status quo.[132] Public debate has increasingly extended to digital platforms; Japanese media and academic outlets have reported instances of inauthentic social-media activity linked to foreign information operations concerning Okinawa and independence narratives.[133][134][135]
The indigenousRyukyuans make up the majority of Okinawa Prefecture's population and are also the main ethnic group of theAmami Islands to the north. Large Okinawan diaspora communities persist in places such as South America[137] andHawaii.[138] With the introduction of American military bases, there are an increasing number of half-American children in Okinawa, including prefecture governorDenny Tamaki.[139] The prefecture also has a sizable minority ofYamato people from mainland Japan; exact population numbers are difficult to establish, as the Japanese government does not officially recognize Ryukyuans as a distinct ethnic group from Yamatos.
The overall ethnic identity of Okinawa residents is rather split. According to a telephone poll conducted by Lim John Chuan-tiong (林泉忠), an associate professor with theUniversity of the Ryukyus, 40.6% of respondents identified as "沖縄人 (Okinawan)", 21.3% identified as "日本人 (Japanese)" and 36.5% identified as both.[140][self-published source?]
There remain sixRyukyuan languages which, although related, are incomprehensible to speakers ofJapanese.One of the Ryukyuan languages is spoken inKagoshima Prefecture, rather than in Okinawa Prefecture. These languages are in decline as the younger generation of Okinawans uses Standard Japanese. Mainland Japanese and some Okinawans generally perceive the Ryukyuan languages as "dialects". Standard Japanese is almost always used in formal situations. In informal situations,de facto everyday language among Okinawans under age 60 is Okinawa-accented mainland Japanese ("Okinawan Japanese"), which is often mistaken by non-Okinawans as the Okinawan language proper. The actual traditional Okinawan language is still used in traditional cultural activities, such asfolk music andfolk dance. There is a radio-news program in the language as well.[144]
Okinawan culture retains strong influences from its historical trading partners. Among these,Kyushu has maintained the closest economic and cultural ties with Okinawa from ancient times to the present, and the two regions share many cultural traits. Elements of Okinawan culture can be found throughoutKyushu, and vice versa. For instance, Okinawan musical scales appear inKyushu's folk songs, and there are notable similarities in cuisine and language.Kyushu is also home to a traditional instrument called thegottan(ゴッタン), which closely resembles the Okinawansanshin(三線).[145][146]
One of the most famous cultural traditions of Okinawa is undoubtedlykarate.Karate is a martial art that originated whenChinese kung fu was introduced to theRyukyu Kingdom and then developed independently within the islands before being brought to mainlandJapan. Today, karate is practiced around the world in various styles, includingShotokan,Goju-ryu,Shito-ryu, andUechi-ryu.[148]
A cultural feature of the Okinawans is the forming ofmoais. Amoai is a community social gathering and groups that come together to provide financial and emotional support through emotional bonding, advice giving, and social funding. This provides a sense of security for the community members and as mentioned in the Blue Zone studies, may have been a contributing factor to the longevity of its people.[149] However, in recent decades Okinawans' life expectancy has fallen significantly (also bringing into question the general validity of the 'Blue Zones' denominaton), which often has been blamed on cultural influence from the rest of Japan, as well as foreign influences on Okinawans' lifestyle.[150]
Two Okinawan writers have received theAkutagawa Prize:Eiki Matayoshi in 1995 forThe Pig's Retribution (豚の報い,Buta no mukui) andShun Medoruma in 1997 forA Drop of Water (Suiteki). The prize was also won by Okinawans in 1967 byTatsuhiro Oshiro forCocktail Party (Kakuteru Pāti) and in 1971 byMineo Higashi forOkinawan Boy (Okinawa no Shōnen).[151][152]
A traditional craft, the fabric namedbingata, is made in workshops on the main island and elsewhere.
The music of the prefecture contains native and imported influences in bothkoten (classical) andmin'yō (folk) styles. Okinawan instruments include thesanshin—a three-stringedbanjo-like instrument, closely related to the Chinesesanxian, and ancestor of the Japaneseshamisen. Its body is often bound with snakeskin (frompythons, imported from elsewhere in Asia, rather than from Okinawa's venomoushabu, which are too small for this purpose). Okinawan musical cultures integrate dance with music, such as ineisa, a traditional drumming dance.[153]
Okinawan people have inherited a traditional religious belief system known asRyukyuan Shinto, which is similar to but distinct from modernJapanese Shinto. This indigenous belief system is animistic in nature, characterized by ancestor worship and a deep respect for the relationships between the living, the dead, and the gods or spirits of the natural world.[154]
Shamanic practitioners, known asYuta, continue to play an active role in Okinawan society. They perform ritual prayers, divination, spiritual consultations, and even communicate with the spirits of the deceased. For many people,yuta serve as important spiritual guides who offer advice and solutions to both supernatural and everyday life problems.[155]
Throughout Okinawa, there are sacred sites known asutaki, where rituals and ceremonies are performed. Ryukyuan beliefs preserve many elements of ancient Japanese spirituality—such as those from theJōmon andYayoi periods—which have largely disappeared on the Japanese mainland. As such, they are considered important resources incomparative mythology and religious studies.[156][157]
TheOkinawan diet consists of low-fat, low-salt foods, such as whole fruits and vegetables, legumes, tofu, and seaweed. Okinawans are particularly well known for consuming purple potatoes, also known as Okinawan sweet potatoes.[158] Okinawans used to be known for theirlongevity compared to the rest of Japan and the world in general. This particular island is a so-calledBlue Zone, an area where people are purported to live longer than most others elsewhere in the world. Possible explanations for this were diet, low-stress lifestyle, caring community, activity, and spirituality of the inhabitants of the island.[159][page needed]
A traditional Okinawan product that owes its existence to Okinawa's trading history isawamori—an Okinawan distilled spirit made fromindica rice imported fromThailand.
Whereas mosthomes in Japan are made from wood and allow free-flow of air to combat humidity, typical modern homes in Okinawa are made from concrete with barred windows to protect from flying plant debris and to withstand regulartyphoons. Roofs are designed with strong winds in mind, in which each tile is cemented on and not merely layered as seen with many homes in Japan.[citation needed] The Nakamura House (中村家住宅 (沖縄県) [ja]) is an original 18th century farmhouse in Kitanakagusuki. Many roofs also display a lion-dog statue, called ashisa, which is said to protect the home from danger. Roofs are typically red in color and are inspired by Chinese design.[162]
Following Okinawa's occupation, karate spread to the United States and the rest of the world. It is now popular across the world, and has since beenincluded in the Olympic Games.[164][165][166]
TheRyukyu Golden Kings are a professional basketball team that compete in theB.League, the top-tier professional basketball league of Japan. They are successful, having won the national title five times (most recently in2023).
Harii (ハーリー) is a traditional rowing sport practiced mainly inKyushu and Okinawa,Japan.
It is typically held during events such as the Kaijin-sai (海神祭) around the 4th day of the 5th month of the lunar calendar (ユッカヌヒー), or near the lunar Obon season.
The sport features a boat race in which dozens of men board aharii boat and row competitively; the team that reaches the finish line first is declared the winner.[168]
Variousharii races are held throughout Okinawa, with the most prominent being theNaha Harii in the city ofNaha.[169]
In 2019, BASE Okinawa Baseball Club attempted forming the first-ever professional baseball team on Okinawa, the Ryukyu Blue Oceans. The team was expected to be fully organized by January 2020 with a view to joining theNippon Professional Baseball league.[171]
However, complications arising from theCOVID-19 pandemic compounded with allegations of financial mismanagement – including reports of unpaid wages to players – resulted in the project being put on hold in November 2022. An exodus of players and staff followed, resulting in management company BASE officially filing for bankruptcy on April 6, 2023.[172]
Despite the lack of a local team, various professional baseball teams hold winter training camps in Okinawa as it is the warmest prefecture of Japan, with no snow and higher average temperatures than other prefectures. In 2025, ten teams held such camps across the prefecture, including two teams from theKBO League.[173]
The island economy is primarily driven by tourism and the U.S. military presence.[180] Other significant contributors to the economy include public utilities and public works, as well as, to a lesser extent, limestone mining, cement production, agriculture, telecommunications (Okinawa Cellular Telephone [ja]), and alcoholic beverage production (Orion Breweries).[181][182][183]
The 34 U.S. military installations on Okinawa are financially supported by the U.S. and Japan.[184] The bases provide jobs for Okinawans, both directly and indirectly; in 2011, the U.S. military employed over 9,800 Japanese workers in Okinawa.[184] As of 2012[update] the bases accounted for up to 5% of the economy.[185] However, Koji Taira argued in 1997 that because the U.S. bases occupy around 20% of Okinawa's land, they impose adeadweight loss of 15% on the Okinawan economy.[186] The Tokyo government also pays the prefectural government around ¥10 billion per year[184] in compensation for the American presence, including, for instance, rent paid by the Japanese government to the Okinawans on whose land American bases are situated.[187] A 2005 report by the U.S. Forces Japan Okinawa Area Field Office estimated that in 2003 the combined U.S. and Japanese base-related spending contributed $1.9 billion to the local economy.[188] On January 13, 2015, in response to the citizens electing governorTakeshi Onaga, the national government announced that Okinawa's funding will be cut, due to the governor's stance on removing the US military bases from Okinawa, which the national government does not want happening.[189][190]
The Okinawa Convention and Visitors Bureau is exploring the possibility of using facilities on the military bases for large-scale meetings, conferencing, exhibitions events.[191]
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^abAn, Chengri; Li, Jinbo (December 2011). "On the Formation of U.S. Trusteeship Policy Over Okinawa After WWII (Part 1)".Journal of Beihua University (Social Science Edition) (in Chinese).12 (6). Beihua University:61–66.
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^ab"No home where the dugong roam".The Economist. October 27, 2005.Archived from the original on September 5, 2006. RetrievedSeptember 7, 2006.some of the bloodiest campaigns anywhere in the second world war were fought in Okinawa, and a third of the civilian population died.
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