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| Ok | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | New Guinea |
| Linguistic classification | Trans–New Guinea |
| Proto-language | Proto-Ok |
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | okok1235 |
 Map: The Oksapmin languages of New Guinea The Oksapmin languages Other Trans–New Guinea languages Other Papuan languages Austronesian languages Uninhabited | |
TheOk languages are a family of about a dozen relatedTrans–New Guinea languages spoken in a contiguous area of easternIrian Jaya and westernPapua New Guinea. The most numerous language is Ngalum, with some 20,000 speakers; the best known is probably Telefol.
The Ok languages havedyadic kinship terms.[2]
The Ok languages are clearly related.Alan Healey identified them as a family in 1962. He later noted connections with theAsmat languages andAwyu–Dumut families (Healey 1970).
Voorhoeve developed this into aCentral and South New Guinea (CSNG) proposal. As part of CSNG, the Ok languages form part of the original proposal for Trans–New Guinea, a position tentatively maintained byMalcolm Ross, though reduced nearly to Healey's original conception. Ross states that he cannot tell if the similarities in CSNG are shared innovations or retentions fromproto-TNG. Voorhoeve argues specifically for an Awyu–Ok relationship, and Foley believes that these two families may be closest toAsmat among the TNG languages.
Loughnane and Fedden (2011)[3] claim to have demonstrated that the erstwhile TNG isolateOksapmin is related to the Ok family. However, this has not been generally accepted because loans from Mountain Ok have not been accounted for.
Van den Heuvel & Fedden (2014) argue that Greater Awyu and Greater Ok are not genetically related, but that their similarities are due to intensive contact.[4]
The languages are:
| Proto-Ok | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Ok languages |
Reconstructed ancestors | |
The following are consonants of Proto-Ok:[5]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | labialized | |||||
| Nasal | *m | *n | ||||
| Plosive | plain | *p | *t | *k | *kʷ | |
| prenasalized | *ᵐb | *ⁿd | *ⁿdz | *ᵑɡ | *ᵑɡʷ | |
| Fricative | *s | |||||
| Semivowel | *w | *j | ||||
| Rhotic | *ɾ | |||||
Vowels may be/*iː*ʉ*uː*e*a*o/, but this reconstruction may be biased toward Telefol.
Healey & Ross reconstruct the pronouns of proto-Ok are as follows:[citation needed]
| m.sg | f.sg | pl | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *na- | *nu[b], *ni[b] | |
| 2 | *ka-b- | *ku-b- | *ki[b] |
| 3 | *ya | *yu | *[y]i |
Usher (2020) reconstructs the independent pronouns as,[5]
| m.sg | f.sg | pl | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1ex | *ne | *nu | |
| 1in | *nu-p | ||
| 2 | *ke-p | *ku-p | *ki-p |
| 3 | *e | *u | *i [3pl.in *i-p] |
and the subject suffixes as,
| m.sg | f.sg | pl | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *-i | *-up | |
| 2 | *-ep | *-ip | |
| 3 | *-e/*-o | *-u | |
Proto-Mountain Ok reflexes ofproto-Trans-New Guinea (pTNG) etyma, as quoted by Pawley & Hammarström (2018) from Healey (1964):[6][7]
Some lexical reconstructions by Usher (2020) are:[5]
| gloss | Proto-Ok | Proto-West Ok | Ngalum | Proto-Central Ok | Proto-Lowland Ok | Proto-Mountain Ok |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| head | *ambo[t] | *amb[o/u][t] | *ambo | *ŋgambɔːm | ||
| hair/feather | *kam[y][ː]R | *kamu | kamil | *kep | *kami | ? *karíːm (metathesis) |
| ear | *kindoːŋg | *kireŋg | siroŋ | *kiroŋg | *kende | *kìroːŋ |
| eye | *kiː[n/nd][i] | *k[i]ri | sir | *kit | *kin(-jop) | *kìːn |
| nose | *mitoR | *mete | misol | *m[i]t[o] | *mitu | *mít |
| tooth | *niːŋgiR | niŋil | *niŋgi | *niŋgi | *níːŋg | |
| tongue | *poːŋg; *pir[a/o]ŋg | *[p]iraŋg | aploŋ | *poŋg | *poŋg | *póːŋg; *piráŋg |
| foot/leg | *j[aː/oː]n | *jan | jon | *jon | *jon | *jàːn |
| blood/red | *r[aː/eː]m | lam | *jam | *rèːm | ||
| bone | *kundo[ː]R | *kuro | kulol | *koro | *kondo | *kún |
| skin | *kaːnd | *kat | kal | *kat | *kar | *kàːr |
| breast | *muːk | *muk | muk | *muk | *muk | *múːk |
| louse | *kuwimb | *k[uwi]p | sip | *kuwip | *kuwim | *kìm |
| dog | *ano[ː]n | *anan | anon | *anon | *anon | *majaːn |
| pig | *kowaŋg | *kuwoŋg | kaŋ | *koŋg | *kowaŋg | *k[àː/òː]ŋg |
| bird | *n[a/o][ː]r[t] | *no[r]t | nal | *noe | *on | *awɔːn |
| egg | *windin | *win | wirin | *wirin | *windi | *wín |
| tree/fire | *andz | *a | a | *a | *ar (? *andz) | *às |
| man | *ka-tup | |||||
| woman | *wVnVŋg | wanaŋ | *kur 'woman/wife' | *w[o]noŋg | *wàn[é/á]ŋg | |
| sun | *at[aː/oː]n | *atan | aton | *at[a/o]n | *aton | *átàːn |
| moon | *wakor | *ukot | ukol | *ukoe | *w[o]kor | *wàkár |
| water | *oːk | *ok | ok | *ok | *ok | *òːk |
| fire/spark | *asi[n/ŋg] | *asin | asiŋg | *asi[n/ŋg] | *awop | *weⁱŋg 'fire' |
| stone | *tuːm | *tum | tum | *tum | *tum | *túːm |
| path | *[nd/j][y]jip | *ɾeⁱp | ||||
| name | *[a]niŋg[o]R; *wini | *iniŋg | niŋil | *wini | *[a]niŋgo | *wín |
| eat | *en- 'eat/drink' | *ane- | *wan 'eat/drink' | |||
| one | *muwim 'one/all' | *mowim | ||||
| two | *pajop, *[p]aɾop | *asʉ; *aɾe̞ːp |
Proto-Ok-Oksapmin reconstructions from Loughnane and Fedden (2011):[3]
| gloss | proto-Ok-Oksapmin |
|---|---|
| appetizer | *imin |
| arrow type | *(w)Vn; *xanaat |
| ashes | *kip |
| ask | *daxa |
| at (place) | *kal |
| and, with | *soo |
| bandicoot variety | *kajaal |
| bat variety | *jVwVm |
| be, stay | *p(iː); *(i)n |
| bird-of-paradise | *xoloom |
| bird variety | *aleem; *ilnem |
| blood | *xeim |
| blunt (of e.g. knife) | *fiim |
| break, dislocate (bone) | *doxo |
| burn / light fire | *xVl |
| casuarina tree | *dVtVp |
| chest (bone) | *tVVb |
| cockroach | *tanoom |
| cold | *giil |
| collar bone | *kʷiŋ |
| crumbs | *bVVl |
| cucumber | *kimVd |
| cut (hair), shave (hair) | *pida- |
| dirty (of water) | *miim |
| do / make | *xV- |
| dog | *mVjaan |
| domestic pig | *kVŋ |
| down, below | *daak |
| dry | *xV(V)x |
| eagle, eagle variety | *boxVl |
| emphatic pronoun marker | *-xVp |
| enemy | *maxaw |
| enough | *kii |
| excrement | *Vl |
| eye | *kiin |
| fern | *abal |
| fish | *aniiŋ |
| frog variety | *siilsiil |
| fruit | *dVm |
| garden | *(i)laŋ |
| greedy, selfish | *ilek |
| headman, leader | *kVmoxVm |
| heart | *bVpVl |
| heavy | *iluum |
| hornbill | *xawel |
| house post | *(V)bVk |
| husk (of nut) | *(w)VVm |
| in, hole | *tem |
| itchy | *abaalabaal |
| kidney | *gV(V)l(V)(p) |
| knee | *katVVn |
| kookaburra | *k(V)lVx |
| light (weight) | *fVVŋ |
| little finger | *xatxat |
| magic | *kusem |
| molar / tooth | *aga(k) |
| moon | *kajoop |
| mosquito | *gimgim |
| name | *win |
| nasal mucus | *iin |
| neck, throat | *gʷel |
| needle | *sVl |
| nettle variety | *waan |
| nose | *(mu)duum |
| no! | *bV(V)s(V) |
| old | *pVsel |
| pancreas | *kʷVVn |
| part of floor | *dixim |
| penis | *eit |
| point, tip | *puut |
| poor | *bVlVp |
| possum variety | *sopim |
| pregnant | *gVpVn |
| pronged bird arrow | *geim |
| pus | *isax |
| rain shower | *sox |
| roundworm | *kasen |
| salt (traded fromOksapmin) | *eip |
| same as, like | *tap |
| seedling / plant / container | *san |
| sharp | *atVl |
| fed up with | *gaal |
| sit with feet and legs together | *goptV(V) |
| small mammal | *nVVg |
| snake / snake variety | *inap |
| sorcery | *kimon |
| spark | *tVtup |
| squash | *sof(l)it; *sVko |
| story | *saŋ |
| sugarcane | *kʷeit |
| sun | *ataan |
| sweet, tasty | *xabaal |
| taboo | *awem |
| temporary | *(ka)kuun |
| thin | *daŋ |
| tobacco | *suux |
| tongue | *fV(lV)ŋ |
| top / bottom oftaro | *dVm |
| trap | *abil |
| self, reflexive | *xol |
| urine | *imaan |
| vein | *mamel |
| vomit | *usaan |
| warm | *mVmVn |
| wasp | *VVm |
| white cockatoo | *nama |
| wild pig | *saamVVn |
| wind | *inim |
| yellow | *xop; *kitax |
| child | *mVVn |
| father.1POSS1 | *at(umon) |
| father.3POSS | *VVlap |
| in-law.1POSS | *baad |
| man's sister | *bVVp |
| uncle.1POSS | *mV(V)m(ein) |
| younger brother | *VnVVŋ |
| husband and wife | *agam |
| mother and children | *Vbdil |