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| Ojibwe | |
|---|---|
| Ojibwa | |
| Anishinaabemowin,ᐊᓂᐦᔑᓈᐯᒧᐎᓐ | |
 | |
| Pronunciation | [anɪʃːɪnaːpeːmowɪn] or[anɪʃɪnaːbeːmowɪn] |
| Native to | Canada,United States |
| Region | Canada:Quebec,Ontario,Manitoba,Saskatchewan, groups inAlberta, British Columbia; United States:Michigan,Wisconsin,Minnesota, groups inNorth Dakota,Montana |
| Ethnicity | Ojibwe |
Native speakers | (50,000 cited 1990–2016 censuses)[1] |
Algic
| |
| Dialects | (seeOjibwe dialects) |
| |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-1 | oj – Ojibwa |
| ISO 639-2 | oji – Ojibwa |
| ISO 639-3 | oji – inclusive code – OjibwaIndividual codes: ojs – Severn Ojibwaojg – Eastern Ojibwaojc – Central Ojibwaojb – Northwestern Ojibwaojw – Western Ojibwaciw – Chippewaotw – Ottawaalq – Algonquin |
| Glottolog | ojib1241 Ojibwa |
| Linguasphere | 62-ADA-d(Ojibwa+Anissinapek) |
 Location of all Anishinaabe Reservations/Reserves and cities with an Anishinaabe population in North America, with diffusion rings about communities speaking Anishinaabe languages | |
 Ojibwe is classified as Severely Endangered by theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger. | |
| This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA. | |
| Person | Ojibwe ᐅᒋᐺ Anishinaabe ᐊᓂᔑᓈᐯ |
|---|---|
| People | Ojibweg ᐅᒋᐺᒃ / ᐅᒋᐺᐠ Anishinaabek ᐊᓂᔑᓈᐯᒃ / ᐊᓂᔑᓈᐯᐠ |
| Language | Ojibwemowin ᐅᒋᐺᒧᐎᓐ Anishinaabemowin ᐊᓂᐦᔑᓈᐯᒧᐎᓐ Hand Talk |
| Country | Ojibwewaki[2] ᐅᒋᐻᐘᑭ Anishinaabewaki ᐊᓂᔑᓈᐯᐘᑭ |
Ojibwe (/oʊˈdʒɪbweɪ/oh-JIB-way),[3] also known asOjibwa (/oʊˈdʒɪbwə/oh-JIB-wə),[4][5][6]Ojibway,Otchipwe,[7]Ojibwemowin, orAnishinaabemowin, is anindigenous language of North America of theAlgonquian language family.[8][9] The language is characterized by a series ofdialects that have local names and frequently localwriting systems. There is no single dialect that is considered the most prestigious or most prominent, and no standard writing system that covers all dialects.
Dialects of Ojibwemowin are spoken in Canada, from southwesternQuebec, throughOntario, Manitoba and parts ofSaskatchewan, with outlying communities inAlberta;[10][11] and in the United States, fromMichigan toWisconsin andMinnesota, with a number of communities inNorth Dakota andMontana, as well as groups that were removed toKansas andOklahoma during theIndian Removal period.[11][12] While there is some variation in the classification of its dialects, at least the following are recognized, from east to west:Algonquin,Eastern Ojibwe,Ottawa (Odawa),Western Ojibwe (Saulteaux),Oji-Cree (Severn Ojibwe),Northwestern Ojibwe, andSouthwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa). Based upon contemporary field research, J. R. Valentine also recognizes several other dialects: Berens Ojibwe in northwestern Ontario, which he distinguishes from Northwestern Ojibwe; North of (Lake) Superior; and Nipissing. The latter two cover approximately the same territory asCentral Ojibwa, which he does not recognize.[13]
The aggregated dialects of Ojibwemowin comprise the second most commonly spokenFirst Nations language in Canada (afterCree),[14] and the fourth most widely spoken in the United States or Canada behindNavajo, theInuit languages and Cree.[15]
Ojibwemowin is a relatively healthy indigenous language. TheWaadookodaading Ojibwe Language Immersion School inHayward, Wisconsin, teaches all classes to children in Ojibwe only.[16] A similar program is also in place at Lowell Elementary School inDuluth, Minnesota.[17]
The Algonquian language family, of which Ojibwemowin is itself a member, forms a branch of theAlgic language family, other non-Algonquian Algic languages beingWiyot andYurok.[8] Ojibwe is sometimes described as aCentral Algonquian language, along withFox,Cree,Menominee,Miami-Illinois,Potawatomi, andShawnee.[8] Central Algonquian is a geographical term of convenience rather than agenetic subgroup, and its use does not indicate that the Central languages are more closely related to each other than to the other Algonquian languages.[18]
The most general Indigenousdesignation for the language isAnishinaabemowin 'speaking the native language' (Anishinaabe 'native person,' verb suffix–mo 'speak a language,' suffix–win 'nominalizer'),[19][20] with varying spellings and pronunciations depending upon dialect. Some speakers use the termOjibwemowin.[21][22] The general term in Oji-Cree (Severn Ojibwe) isAnihshininiimowin, althoughAnishinaabemowin is widely recognized by Severn speakers.[21] Some speakers ofSaulteaux Ojibwe refer to their language asNakawemowin.[21] TheOttawa dialect is sometimes referred to asDaawaamwin,[23] although the general designation isNishnaabemwin, with the latter term also applied toJibwemwin orEastern Ojibwe.[24] Other local terms are listed inOjibwe dialects. English terms includeOjibwe, with variants includingOjibwa andOjibway.[25] The related termChippewa is more commonly employed in the United States and in southwestern Ontario among descendants of Ojibwe migrants from the United States.[26]
Ojibwe andPotawatomi are frequently viewed as being more closely related to each other than to other Algonquian languages.[27] Ojibwe and Potawatomi have been proposed as likely candidates for forming a genetic subgroup withinProto-Algonquian, although the required research to ascertain the linguistic history and status of a hypothetical "Ojibwe–Potawatomi" subgroup has not yet been undertaken. A discussion of Algonquian family subgroups indicates that "Ojibwe–Potawatomi is another possibility that awaits investigation."[28] In a proposed consensus classification of Algonquian languages, Goddard (1996) classifies Ojibwa and Potawatomi as "Ojibwayan", although no supporting evidence is adduced.[29]
The Central languages share a significant number of common features. These features can generally be attributed todiffusion of features through borrowing: "Extensive lexical, phonological, and perhaps grammatical borrowing—the diffusion of elements and features across language boundaries—appears to have been the major factor in giving the languages in the area of the Upper Great Lakes their generally similar cast, and it has not been possible to find any shared innovations substantial enough to require the postulation of a genetically distinct Central Algonquian subgroup."[28]
The possibility that the proposed genetic subgrouping of Ojibwa and Potawatomi can also be accounted for as diffusion has also been raised: "The putative Ojibwa–Potawatomi subgroup is similarly open to question, but cannot be evaluated without more information on Potawatomi dialects."[30]
Several different Ojibwe dialects have functioned as alingua franca ortrade language in thecircum–Great Lakes area, particularly in interactions with speakers of other Algonquian languages.[31] Documentation of such usage dates from the 18th and 19th centuries, but earlier use is likely, with reports as early as 1703 suggesting that Ojibwe was used by different groups from theGulf of Saint Lawrence toLake Winnipeg, and from as far south asOhio toHudson Bay.[32]
Documentation from the 17th century indicates that theWyandot language (also called Huron), one of theIroquoian languages, was also used as a trade language east of the Great Lakes by speakers of the Nipissing andAlgonquin dialects of Ojibwe, and also by other groups south of the Great Lakes, including the Winnebago and by a group of unknown affiliation identified only as "Assistaeronon". The political decline of the Hurons in the 18th century and the ascendancy of Ojibwe-speaking groups including the Ottawa led to the replacement of Huron as a lingua franca.[33]
In the area east ofGeorgian Bay, the Nipissing dialect was a trade language. In theLower Peninsula of Michigan, the eastern end of theUpper Peninsula, the area betweenLake Erie andLake Huron, and along the north shore of Georgian Bay, the Ottawa dialect served as a trade language. In the area south ofLake Superior and west ofLake Michigan Southwestern Ojibwe was the trade language.[34] A widespread pattern of asymmetrical bilingualism is found in the area south of the Great Lakes in which speakers of Potawatomi or Menominee, both Algonquian languages, also spoke Ojibwe, but Ojibwe speakers did not speak the other languages. It is known that some speakers of Menominee also speak Ojibwe and that the pattern persisted into the 20th century. Similarly, bilingualism in Ojibwe is still common among Potawatomis who speak Potawatomi.[35]
Reports from traders and travellers as early as 1744 indicate that speakers ofMenominee, another Algonquian language, used Ojibwe as a lingua franca. Other reports from the 18th century and the early 19th century indicate that speakers of the unrelatedSiouan languageHo-Chunk (Winnebago) also used Ojibwe when dealing with Europeans and others.[36] Other reports indicate that agents of the American government atGreen Bay, Wisconsin, spoke Ojibwe in their interactions with Menominee, with other reports indicating that "the Chippewa, Menominee, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Sac, and Fox tribes used Ojibwe in intertribal communication...."[36] Some reports indicate that farther west, speakers of non-Algonquian languages such as Ho-Chunk (Winnebago),Iowa, andPawnee spoke Ojibwe as an "acquired language".[36]
In the late 19th century, the American federalNative American boarding school initiative which forced Native American children to attend government-run boarding schools in an attempt to "acculturate" them into American society. Often far from their home communities, these schools attempted to remove any ties children had to their native culture and to limit their ability to visit home. Students were forced to speak English, cut their hair, dress in uniform, practise Christianity, and learn about European culture and history.[37]
Although theIndian Reorganization Act of 1934 mandated the phasing-out of the Native American boarding school program, the practice of sending youth to these institutions continued into the 1960s and 1970s. Because children were forced to live away from their home communities, many never had the opportunity to hear and use their native language. This government assimilation effort caused widespread loss of language and culture among indigenous communities, including the Ojibwe people.[38]
With the remaining population of native speakers declining as older generations pass away, many historians consider now an important point in the language's history that will determine if it will proliferate or become extinct. Ojibwe historian Anton Treuer estimates that there are about 1,000 speakers of Ojibwe left in the United States, most residing in Minnesota on theRed Lake Indian Reservation or inMille Lacs region. Teacher of the language Keller Paap approximates that most fluent speakers in the United States are over 70 years old, making exposure to spoken Ojibwemowin limited in many communities.[39]
Ojibwe educators and scholars across the region are working with the remaining elders who speak Ojibwemowin, known as the First Speakers, so as to document and learn the language in hopes to preserve it and pass it on to the next generation of speakers. In recent years, historian and Ojibwe professor Anton Treuer has been recording stories told by about 50 different Ojibwe elders in their native language so as to preserve both the language and pieces of knowledge and history. Alongside his current mentor, a Ponemah elder named Eugene Stillday, he writes the recorded stories in both Ojibwe and translated English.[39]
As of the late 2010s, there has been more of a push toward bringing the Ojibwe language back into more common use, through language classes and programs sponsored by universities, sometimes available to non-students, which are essential to passing on the Ojibwe language.[40][41][42] These courses mainly target adults and young adults; however, there are many resources for all age groups, including online games[43] which provide domains for online language use. In the 1980s, The Northern Native-Languages Project was introduced in Ontario to get Indigenous languages such as Ojibwe, to be taught in schools. Years later, the first curriculum was established for the program and it was known as Native Languages 1987.[44] There has also been an increase in published children's literature.[45] The increase in materials published in Ojibwe is essential to increasing the number of speakers. Language revitalization through Ojibwe frameworks also allows for cultural concepts to be conveyed through language.[46]
A 2014 study has indicated that learning Indigenous languages such as Ojibwe in school helps in learning the language and language structure; however, it does not help grow the use of the language outside of a school setting. The most effective way of promoting language is being surrounded by the language, especially in a familial setting. This is difficult to replicate in schools, which is why speaking Ojibwe with family and in one's home life is important in growing language revitalization.[47]
Research has been done in Ojibwe communities to prove the important role language revitalization has in treating health concerns. The use of language connects a community through shared views and supports the well-being of said community.[48] Researchers found that language and the notion of culture were intertwined together instead of being separate concepts, and the people who regularly practiced their language and culture were often associated with more positive health outcomes, particularly for psychological health and mental well-being.[48]
An "Ojibway Language and People" app is anopen-source app available foriOS devices.[49][50] The Ojibwe People's Dictionary is an online language resource created in collaboration with the University of Minnesota. It is an accessible system that allows users to search in English or Ojibwe and includes voice recordings for many of the 17 000 entries in the collection.[51]
Despite what they have faced in the American and Canadian Governments' attempt to force Ojibwe intolanguage death through the educational system, many indigenous communities across the Great Lakes region are making efforts towards the Ojibwelanguage revival by similarly using the school system. Largely inspired by the success ofPolynesian languages immersion schools inHawaii andNew Zealand, similar school programs have been starting throughoutMinnesota andWisconsin in recent years. One of the most notable programs—developed by Ojibwe educatorsLisa LaRonge andKeller Paap—is that of the Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Immersion School located on theLac Courte Oreilles Reservation in northern Wisconsin.[52] Most students come from English-speaking homes and are learning Ojibwemowin as their second language. At this school, instructors and elders teach the preschoolers to third graders entirely in the Ojibwe language, so that by the time that students complete kindergarten, they know both English and Ojibwe alphabets and writing systems. In the classroom, students generally first become familiar with the language by hearing and speaking it and then advance to reading and writing it as well. They are taught mathematics, reading, social studies, music, and other typical school subjects through the medium of the Ojibwe language so as to increase student's exposure to Ojibwemowin while providing a well-rounded education.[39] In her research study on Ojibwe immersion schools, Ojibwe scholar and educator Mary Hermes suggests that educating through the Ojibwe language may be more culturally meaningful to communities than simply educating about the culture through English.[53]
The goal, as with many other language immersion schools across the country, is to meet state-mandated standards for curriculum in the native language. This can be a challenge as public education standards are rigorous with curriculum on complex mathematic and scientific concepts occurring at the second and third grade levels. Ojibwe educators at these schools are constantly working with elders so as to design new ways to say lesser-used words in Ojibwe such asplastic orquotient. Because the Ojibwe language is traditionally oral, it is often difficult for educators to find adequate resources to develop the curriculum. Thus, through these school programs, the language is constantly evolving.[39]
Many of these Ojibwe language immersion schools are also considering the question as to whether or not they should include English instruction. Some research suggests that learning to write in one's first language is important prior to learning a second language. Therefore, many schools include some level of English education at certain grade levels.[53]
Along with using the native language, Waadookodaading uses native ways of teaching in its education system. "Ojibwemowin, the Ojibwe language, is a language of action."[54] Therefore, students are encouraged to learn the language by observing and by doing. For example, each spring the students at Waadookodaading participate in a maple sugar harvest. Older students and elders instruct the younger students on the harvest process, narrating what they are doing in Ojibwemowin as the younger students observe. The younger students are then encouraged to participate as they learn, gathering wood, helping to drill trees, and hauling buckets of sap. Thus, the Ojibwe language is kept alive through indigenous methods of teaching, which emphasizes hands-on experiences, such as the sugar bush harvest.[55] The language is then passed on in a similar manner in which it has been throughout history in that older members of the community—including elders/instructors and older students at the schools—relay their knowledge and experiences to the younger generation.
Ojibwe communities are found in Canada from southwesternQuebec, throughOntario, southernManitoba and parts of southernSaskatchewan; and in the United States from northernMichigan through northernWisconsin and northernMinnesota, with a number of communities in northernNorth Dakota and northernMontana.[56] Groups of speakers of the Ottawa dialect migrated toKansas andOklahoma during the historical period, with a small amount of linguistic documentation of the language in Oklahoma.[57] The presence of Ojibwe inBritish Columbia has been noted.[11]
Current census data indicate that all varieties of Ojibwe are spoken by approximately 56,531 people. This figure reflects census data from the2000 United States census and the2006 Canadian census. The Ojibwe language is reported as spoken by a total of 8,791 people in the United States[58] of which 7,355 are Native Americans[59] and by as many as 47,740 in Canada,[14] making it one of the largest Algic languages by numbers of speakers.[14]
| Language | Canada (2016) | Canada (2011) | United States | Total (by speakers) | Total ethnic population |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Algonquin | 1,660 | 2,680[14] | 0 | 2,680 | 8,266 |
| Oji-Cree | 13,630 | 12,600[14] | 0 | 12,600 | 12,600 |
| Ojibwe | 20,470 | 24,896[60] | 8,355[58] | 33,251 | 219,711 |
| Ottawa | 165 | 7,564[61] | 436[59] | 8,000[62] | 60,000[62] |
| Total (by Country) | 35,925 | 47,740 | 8,791 | 56,531 | 300,577 |
TheRed Lake,White Earth, andLeech Lake reservations are known for their tradition of singinghymns in the Ojibwe language.[63] As of 2011, Ojibwe is the official language of Red Lake.[64]
Because the dialects of Ojibwe are at least partly mutually intelligible, Ojibwe is usually considered to be a single language with a number of dialects, i.e. Ojibwe is "... conventionally regarded as a single language consisting of acontinuum of dialectal varieties since ... every dialect is at least partly intelligible to the speakers of the neighboring dialects."[65] The degree of mutual intelligibility between nonadjacent dialects varies considerably; recent research has shown that there is strong differentiation between the Ottawa dialect spoken in southern Ontario and northern Michigan; the Severn Ojibwa dialect spoken in northern Ontario and Manitoba; and the Algonquin dialect spoken in southwestern Quebec.[66] Valentine notes that isolation is the most plausible explanation for the distinctive linguistic features found in these three dialects.[67] Many communities adjacent to these relatively sharply differentiated dialects show a mix of transitional features, reflecting overlap with other nearby dialects.[68] While each of these dialects has undergone innovations that make them distinctive, their status as part of the Ojibwe language complex is not in dispute.[67] The relatively low degrees of mutual intelligibility between some nonadjacent Ojibwe dialects led Rhodes and Todd to suggest that Ojibwe should be analyzed as a linguistic subgroup consisting of several languages.[69]
While there is some variation in the classification of Ojibwe dialects, at a minimum the following are recognized, proceeding west to east:Western Ojibwe (Saulteaux),Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa),Northwestern Ojibwe,Severn Ojibwe (Oji-Cree),Ottawa (Odawa),Eastern Ojibwe, andAlgonquin. Based upon contemporary field research, Valentine also recognizes several other dialects: Berens Ojibwe in northwestern Ontario, which he distinguishes from Northwestern Ojibwe; North of (Lake) Superior; and Nipissing. The latter two cover approximately the same territory asCentral Ojibwa, which he does not recognize.[13]
Two recent analyses of the relationships between the Ojibwe dialects are in agreement on the assignment of the strongly differentiated Ottawa dialect to a separate subgroup, and the assignment of Severn Ojibwe and Algonquin to another subgroup, and differ primarily with respect to the relationships between the less strongly differentiated dialects. Rhodes and Todd recognize several different dialectal subgroupings within Ojibwe: (a) Ottawa; (b) Severn and Algonquian; (c) a third subgroup which is further divided into (i) a subgrouping of Northwestern Ojibwe andSaulteaux, and a subgrouping consisting of Eastern Ojibwe and a further subgrouping comprising Southwestern Ojibwe and Central Ojibwe.[70] Valentine has proposed that Ojibwe dialects are divided into three groups: a northern tier consisting of Severn Ojibwe and Algonquin; a southern tier consisting of "Odawa, Chippewa, Eastern Ojibwe, the Ojibwe of the Border Lakes region between Minnesota and Ontario, and Saulteaux; and third, a transitional zone between these two polar groups, in which there is a mixture of northern and southern features."[71]
Michif is amixed language that primarily is based upon French andPlains Cree, with some vocabulary from Ojibwe, in addition to phonological influence in Michif-speaking communities where there is a significant Ojibwe influence.[72][73][74] In locations such asTurtle Mountain, North Dakota individuals of Ojibwe ancestry now speak Michif and Ojibwe.[75]Bungi Creole is an English-basedCreole language spoken in Manitoba by the descendants of "English, Scottish, and Orkney fur traders and their Cree or Saulteaux wives ...".[76] Bungee incorporates elements of Cree; the name may be from the Ojibwe wordbangii 'a little bit' or the Cree equivalent, but whether there is any other Ojibwe component in Bungee is not documented.[77] Ojibwe borrowings have been noted inMenominee, a relatedAlgonquian language.[78]
All dialects of Ojibwe generally have an inventory of 17consonants.[79] Most dialects have the segmentglottal stop/ʔ/ in their inventory of consonant phonemes; Severn Ojibwe and the Algonquin dialect have/h/ in its place. Some dialects have both segments phonetically, but only one is present inphonological representations.[80] The Ottawa and Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) have/h/ in a small number of affective vocabulary items in addition to regular/ʔ/.[81][82] Some dialects may have otherwise non-occurring sounds such as/f,l,r/ inloanwords.[83]
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Postalveolar andpalatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasals | m⟨m⟩ | n⟨n⟩ | ||||
| plosives and affricates | fortis | pʰ⟨p⟩ | tʰ⟨t⟩ | tʃʰ⟨ch⟩ | kʰ⟨k⟩ | ʔ⟨’⟩ |
| lenis | p ~b⟨b⟩ | t ~d⟨d⟩ | tʃ ~dʒ⟨j⟩ | k ~ɡ⟨g⟩ | ||
| Fricative | fortis | sʰ⟨s⟩ | ʃʰ⟨sh⟩ | |||
| lenis | s ~z⟨z⟩ | ʃ ~ʒ⟨zh⟩ | (h⟨h⟩) | |||
| Approximants | j⟨y⟩ | w⟨w⟩ | ||||
Obstruent consonants are divided intolenis andfortis sets, with these features having varying phonological analyses and phonetic realizations cross-dialectally. In some dialects, such as Severn Ojibwe, members of the fortis set are realized as a sequence of/h/ followed by a single segment drawn from the set of lenis consonants:/ptktʃsʃ/. Algonquin Ojibwe is reported as distinguishing fortis and lenis consonants on the basis ofvoicing, with fortis being voiceless and lenis being voiced.[84] In other dialects fortis consonants are realized as having greaterduration than the corresponding lenis consonant, invariably voiceless, "vigorously articulated", andaspirated in certain environments.[85] In some practical orthographies such as the widely used double vowel system, fortis consonants are written with voiceless symbols:p, t, k, ch, s, sh.[86]
Lenis consonants have normal duration and are typically voiced intervocalically. Although they may be devoiced at the end or beginning of a word, they are less vigorously articulated than fortis consonants, and are invariably unaspirated.[87] In the double vowel system, lenis consonants are written with voiced symbols:b, d, g, j, z, zh.[86]
All dialects of Ojibwe have twonasal consonants/m/ and/n/, one labializedvelar approximant/w/, onepalatal approximant/j/, and either/ʔ/ or/h/.[88]
All dialects of Ojibwe have sevenoral vowels.Vowel length is phonologicallycontrastive and so isphonemic. Although long and short vowels are phonetically distinguished by vowel quality, vowel length is phonologically relevant since the distinction betweenlong andshort vowels correlates with the occurrence ofvowel syncope, which characterizes the Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe dialects, as well asword stress patterns in the language.[24]
There are three short vowels/iao/ and three corresponding long vowels/iːaːoː/ in addition to a fourth long vowel/eː/, which lacks a corresponding short vowel. The short vowel/i/ typically has phonetic values centring on[ɪ];/a/ typically has values centring on[ə]~[ʌ]; and/o/ typically has values centring on[o]~[ʊ]. Long/oː/ is pronounced[uː] for many speakers, and/eː/ is often[ɛː].[89]
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close | iː | oː~uː | ||
| Near-Close | ɪ | o~ʊ | ||
| Mid | eː | ə | ||
| Open | aː | |||
Ojibwe hasnasal vowels. Some arise predictably by rule in all analyses, while other long nasal vowels are of uncertain phonological status.[90] The latter have been analysed as underlyingphonemes[9] and/or as predictable and derived by the operation of phonological rules from sequences of a long vowel and /n/ and another segment, typically /j/.[91]
| Front | Central | back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | ĩː | õː~ũː | |
| Mid | ẽː | ||
| Open | ãː |
Placement of word stress is determined by metrical rules that define a characteristiciambicmetrical foot, in which aweak syllable is followed by astrong syllable. A foot consists of a minimum of onesyllable and a maximum of two syllables, with each foot containing a maximum of one strong syllable. The structure of the metrical foot defines the domain for relativeprominence, in which a strong syllable is assigned stress because it is more prominent than the weak member of the foot. Typically, the strong syllable in theantepenultimate foot is assigned the primary stress.[92]
Strong syllables that do not receive main stress are assigned at least secondary stress.[93] In some dialects, metrically weak (unstressed) vowels at the beginning of a word are frequently lost. In the Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe dialects, all metrically weak vowels are deleted.[94] For example,bemisemagak(in) (airplane(s), in the Southwestern Ojibwe dialect) is stressed as [be · mise · magak/ˈbɛːmɪˌseːmʌˌɡak/] in the singular but as [be · mise · maga · kin/ˌbeːmɪˈsɛːmʌˌɡaˌkin/] in the plural. In some other dialects, metrically weak (unstressed) vowels, especially "a" and "i", are reduced to aschwa and depending on the writer, may be transcribed as "i", "e" or "a". For example,anami'egiizhigad [ana · mi'e · gii · zhigad/əˌnaməˈʔɛːˌɡiːʒəˌɡad/] (Sunday, literally 'prayer day') may be transcribed asanama'egiizhigad in those dialects.
The general grammatical characteristics of Ojibwe are shared across its dialects. The Ojibwe language ispolysynthetic, exhibiting characteristics ofsynthesis and a highmorpheme-to-word ratio. Ojibwe is ahead-marking language in whichinflectional morphology on nouns and particularly verbs carries significant amounts of grammatical information.
Word classes includenouns,verbs,grammatical particles,pronouns,preverbs, andprenouns. Preferredword orders in a simpletransitive sentence are verb-initial, such asverb–object–subject andverb–subject–object. While verb-final orders are dispreferred, all logically possible orders are attested.[95]
Complexinflectional andderivational morphology play a central role in Ojibwe grammar. Noun inflection and particularly verb inflection indicate a wide variety of grammatical information, realized through the use ofprefixes andsuffixes added toword stems. Grammatical characteristics include the following:
There is a distinction between two different types ofthird person: theproximate (the third person deemed more important or in focus) and theobviative (the third person deemed less important or out of focus). Nouns can be singular or plural in number and eitheranimate orinanimate in gender. Separate personalpronouns exist but are used mainly for emphasis; they distinguishinclusive and exclusive first-person plurals.
Verbs, the most complex word class, are inflected for one of threeorders (indicative, the default;conjunct, used for participles and insubordinate clauses; andimperative, used with commands), as negative or affirmative, and for the person, number, animacy, and proximate/obviative status of both the subject and object as well as for several differentmodes (including thedubitative andpreterit) and tenses.
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Although it does contain a few loans from English (e.g.gaapii, 'coffee') and French (e.g.mooshwe, 'handkerchief' (frommouchoir),[104]ni-tii, 'tea' (fromle thé, 'the tea'), in general, the Ojibwe language is notable for its relative lack of borrowing from other languages. Instead, speakers far prefer to create words for new concepts from existing vocabulary. For example, in MinnesotaOjibwemowin, 'airplane' isbemisemagak, literally 'thing that flies' (frombimisemagad, 'to fly'), and 'battery' isishkode-makakoons, literally 'little fire-box' (fromishkode, 'fire', andmakak, 'box'). Even 'coffee' is calledmakade-mashkikiwaaboo ('black liquid-medicine') by many speakers, rather thangaapii. These new words vary from region to region, and occasionally from community to community. For example, in Northwest OntarioOjibwemowin, 'airplane' isombaasijigan, literally 'device that gets uplifted by the wind' (fromombaasin, 'to be uplifted by the wind') as opposed to the Minnesotabemisemagak.
Like any language dialects spanning vast regions, some words that may have had identical meaning at one time have evolved to have different meanings today. For example,zhooniyaans (literally 'small[-amount of] money' and used to refer to coins) specifically means 'dime' (10-cent piece) in the United States, but a 'quarter' (25-cent piece) in Canada, ordesabiwin (literally 'thing to sit upon') means 'couch' or 'chair' in Canada, but is used to specifically mean 'saddle' in the United States.
Cases like 'battery' and 'coffee' also demonstrate the often great difference between the literal meanings of the individualmorphemes in a word, and the overall meaning of the entire word.
Below are some examples of common Ojibwe words.
Short list of VAIs:[clarification needed]
Short list of nouns:
There is no standard writing system used for all Ojibwe dialects.[105] Local alphabets have been developed by adapting theLatin script, usually based onEnglish orFrench orthography.[106] Asyllabic writing system, not related to English or French writing, is used by some Ojibwe speakers in northern Ontario and Manitoba.Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics are based on the French alphabet with letters organized into syllables. It was used primarily by speakers ofFox, Potawatomi, and Winnebago, but there is some indirect evidence of use by speakers of Southwestern Ojibwe.[107][108]
A widely used Roman character-based writing system is thedouble vowel system devised by Charles Fiero. Although there is no standard orthography, the double vowel system is used by many Ojibwe language teachers because of its ease of use. A wide range of materials have been published in the system, including a grammar,[24] dictionaries,[109][110] collections of texts,[111][112][113] and pedagogical grammars.[114][115] In northern Ontario and Manitoba, Ojibwe is most commonly written using theCree syllabary, asyllabary originally developed byMethodist missionaryJames Evans around 1840 to write Cree. The syllabic system is based in part on Evans' knowledge ofPitman's shorthand and his prior experience developing a distinctivealphabetic writing system for Ojibwe in southern Ontario.[116]
The double vowel system uses three short vowels, four long vowels, and eighteen consonants, represented with the following Roman letters:[117]
a aa b ch d e g h ' i ii j k m n o oo p s sh t w y z zh
Dialects typically either have/h/ or/ʔ/ (the orthographic⟨'⟩ in most versions) but rarely both.[118]This system is called "double vowel" because the long vowel correspondences to the short vowels⟨a⟩,⟨i⟩ and⟨o⟩ are written with a doubled value. In this system, the nasalny as a final element is instead written⟨nh⟩. The allowable consonant clusters are⟨mb⟩,⟨nd⟩,⟨ng⟩,⟨n'⟩,⟨nj⟩,⟨nz⟩,⟨ns⟩,⟨nzh⟩,⟨sk⟩,⟨shp⟩,⟨sht⟩, and⟨shk⟩.
Notable speakers of Anishinaabemowin include:[citation needed]
Name: Ojibwa
Name: Ojibwa
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