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Anoff-road vehicle (ORV), also known as anoff-highway vehicle (OHV),overland vehicle oradventurevehicle, is a type of transportation specifically engineered to navigateunpaved roads and surfaces.[1] These includetrails,forest roads, and other low-traction terrains. Off-road vehicles are widely used in various contexts, from recreational activities to practical applications like agriculture and construction. Events such as the annualDakar Rally,[2] which spans multiple countries and challenges participants with diverse and extreme terrains, have brought significant attention to these vehicles.
One of the earliest modified off-road vehicles was theKégresse track, a system for modifying cars developed byAdolphe Kégresse while working forTsarNicholas II of Russia between 1906 and 1916.[3] The system employed acaterpillar track with a flexible belt instead of interlocking metal segments, which could be fitted to a conventional vehicle, turning it into a half-track suitable for rough or soft terrain.
After theRussian Revolution of 1917, Kégresse returned toFrance and the system was used onCitroën cars between 1921 and 1937 for off-road andmilitary vehicles. Citroën sponsored several overland expeditions with these vehicles, crossingNorth Africa andCentral Asia.
TheAntarctic Snow Cruiser, a large-wheeled vehicle designed between 1937 and 1939 under the direction ofThomas Poulter, was intended for transport inAntarctica. While the project incorporated novel features, it faced operational difficulties in the harsh Antarctic conditions, and was discontinued.[4]
Jeeps, originally developed as military vehicles duringWorld War II, gained popularity among civilians asutility vehicles. This was also the start ofoff-roading as a hobby. The wartime Jeeps soon wore out, though, and the Jeep company started to produce civilian derivatives, closely followed by similar vehicles fromBritishLand Rover andJapaneseToyota,Datsun/Nissan,Suzuki, andMitsubishi. These were all similar: small, compact,four-wheel drive vehicles with, at most, a small hard top to protect the occupants from the elements.
Early off-road vehicles included the U.S.Jeep Wagoneer andFord Bronco; the BritishRange Rover; and the JapaneseToyota Land Cruiser,Nissan Patrol, andSuzuki's LJ series. They featured bodies similar to those of astation wagon but on alight truck-like frame, withfour-wheel-drivedrivetrains. As off-road vehicles increased in popularity during the 1990s, more companies began producing their own lines of what became known assport utility vehicles (SUV).[5] Manufacturers started incorporating more features to make off-road vehicles competitive with regular vehicles in the consumer market, which eventually evolved into the modern SUV and the newercrossover vehicle, whose off-roading capabilities were reduced in favor of improved on-road handling and luxury.
To effectively navigate off thepavement,off-road vehicles require lowground pressure, highground clearance, and the ability to maintainwheels ortrack contact on uneven surfaces. Wheeled vehicles achieve this through large or additional tires combined with high and compliantsuspension.Tracked vehicles use wide tracks and flexiblesuspension on the road wheels.
Trackeddrivetrains are more expensive to produce and maintain but offer better off-road performance, while wheeled drivetrains are cheaper and allow for higher speeds.
Tires are crucial for wheeled off-road vehicles, andoff-road tire tread types vary based on the terrain. Common types include A/T (All-Terrain) and M/T (mud terrain). A/T tires perform well on sand but are less effective in mud. Sand Blaster andMud bogging tires are used for challenging terrains like dirt, sand, and water to ensure traction at high angles and speeds (off-roadmotorsport).[6]
Most off-road vehicles are equipped withlow gearings, allowing the operator to optimize theengine'savailable power for slow movement through difficult terrain. Aninternal combustion engine coupled to a standardgearbox often has an output speed that is too high, which is resolved by using a very low ("granny") first gear (as in all-wheel driveVolkswagen Transporter versions) or an additional gearbox in line with the first, known as areduction drive. Some vehicles, such as the Bv206, also havetorque converters to reduce the gearing.[7]
Sport utility vehicles have a highercenter of gravity,[8] making them more prone to rolloveraccidents than standardpassenger cars. A study in theUnited States found that SUVs have twice the fatality rate of passenger cars and nearly triple the fatality rate in rollover accidents.[9]
In the United States,light trucks (includingSUVs) account for 36 percent of all registered vehicles and are involved in about half of all fatal two-vehicle crashes with passenger cars. In 80 percent of these crashes, the fatalities are occupants of the passenger cars.[9]
In theUnited States, the number of ORV users has increased sevenfold since 1972, from five million to 36 million in 2000.[10] Government policies that aim to protect wilderness while allowing recreational ORVs have been a subject of debate in the United States and other countries.[11]
All trail and off-trail activities affectnatural vegetation and wildlife, leading toerosion,invasive species,habitat loss, and ultimately,species loss,[12][13][14] which reduces anecosystem's ability to maintainhomeostasis.[15] ORVs cause more environmental stress thanfoot traffic alone, and ORV operators who attempt to challenge natural obstacles can cause significantly more damage than those who stay on legal trails.[16][17] Illegal off-road vehicle use is a seriousland management issue, comparable to illegalgarbage dumping and other forms ofvandalism.[18] Organizations such asTread Lightly! and theSierra Club promote responsibletrail ethics.[19]
ORVs have also been criticized for creating excessive pollution in otherwise pristine areas, as well asnoise pollution that can impair hearing and stress wildlife.[20] In 2002, theUnited States Environmental Protection Agency adopted emissions standards forall-terrain vehicles that, "when fully implemented in 2012, [...they] are expected to prevent the release of more than two million tons ofair pollution each year—the equivalent of removing thepollution from more than 32 million cars every year."[21][22]
Common[where?] commercial vehicles used for off-roading include four-wheel-drivepickup trucks andSUVs such as theFord F-Series,Jeep Wrangler, andToyota Land Cruiser, among others. Owners often modify the wheels, tires, suspension, and body to improve off-road performance. Decommissionedmilitary vehicles such as theJeep CJ and theAM GeneralHummer have also been repurposed for civilian use. Some vehicles, like earlyLand Rovers, were adapted for military use from civilian versions. Specialized off-road vehicles includeUtility terrain vehicles (UTVs),All-terrain vehicles (ATVs),dirt bikes,dune buggies,rock crawlers vehicles, andsandrails.
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Anall-terrain vehicle (ATV), also known as a light utility vehicle (LUV),[23] a quad bike or quad (if it has four wheels), as defined by theAmerican National Standards Institute (ANSI), is a vehicle that travels on low-pressure tires, has a seat that is straddled by the operator, and has handlebars, similar to amotorcycle. As the name implies, it is designed to handle a wider variety of terrain than most other vehicles. It isstreet-legal in some countries, but not in most states, territories and provinces of Australia, the United States, and Canada.
By the currentANSI definition, ATVs are intended for use by a single operator, but some ATVs, referred to as tandem ATVs, have been developed for use by the driver and one passenger.[24]
The rider sits on and operates these vehicles like a motorcycle, but the extra wheels give more stability at slower speeds. Although most are equipped with three or four wheels, six or eight wheel (tracked) models exist and have existed historically for specialized applications.[25] Multiple-user analogues with side-by-side seating are calledutility terrain vehicles (UTVs) or side-by-sides to distinguish the classes of vehicle. Both classes tend to have similarpowertrain parts.Engine sizes of ATVs for sale in the United States as of 2008 ranged from 49 to 1,000 cc (3.0 to 61 cu in).The military market for off-road vehicles was once substantial but has diminished sincethe fall of the Iron Curtain in the 1990s. TheU.S. jeeps, developed duringWorld War II, popularized the term "jeep" for any light off-road vehicle. In the U.S., the Jeep's successor from the mid-1980s was the AM GeneralHMMWV series. TheRed Army used theGAZ-61 andGAZ-64 duringWorld War II, while theEastern Bloc used theGAZ-69 andUAZ-469 in similar roles.
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Vehicles used as primary transport in anexpedition, not for profit, scientific research or personal use.
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Media related toOff-road vehicles at Wikimedia Commons
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