.jpg) Odissi performance at Nishagandi Dance Festival 2024 | |
| Native name | ଓଡ଼ିଶୀ |
|---|---|
| Genre | Indian classical dance |
| Origin | Odisha,India |
Odissi (ଓଡ଼ିଶୀ) also referred to asOrissi in old literature, oldest surviving classical dance of India, is a major ancientIndian classical dance that originated in thetemples ofOdisha – an eastern coastal state ofIndia.[1][2][3] Odissi, in its history, was performed predominantly by women,[1][4] and expressedreligious stories and spiritual ideas, particularly ofVaishnavism through songs written and composed according to theragas &talas ofOdissi music by ancient poets of the state. Odissi performances have also expressed ideas of other traditions such as those related to Hindu deitiesShiva andSurya, as well as Hindu goddesses (Shaktism).[5]
The theoretical foundations of Odissi trace to the ancient Sanskrit textNatya Shastra, its existence in antiquity evidenced by the dance poses in the sculptures ofKalingan temples,[1][6] and archeological sites related toHinduism,Buddhism andJainism.[7][8][9] It was suppressed underBritish Rule.[10][11] The suppression was protested by the Indians, followed by its revival, reconstruction and expansion sinceIndia gained independence from the colonial rule.[8]
Odissi is traditionally a dance-drama genre ofperformance art, where the artist(s) and musicians play out a story, a spiritual message or devotional poem from theHindu texts, using symbolic costumes,[12] body movement,abhinaya (expressions) andmudras (gestures andsign language) set out in ancient Sanskrit literature.[13] Classical Odia literature & theGita Govinda set to traditionalOdissi music are used for theabhinaya. Odissi is learnt and performed as a composite of basic dance motif called theBhangas (symmetric body bends, stance). It involves lower (footwork), mid (torso) and upper (hand and head) body as three sources of perfecting expression and audience engagement with geometric symmetry and rhythmic musical resonance.[14][15] An Odissi performance repertoire includes invocation,nritta (pure dance),nritya (expressive dance),natya (dance drama) andmoksha (dance climax connoting salvation of thesoul and spiritual release).[16][17]
Traditional Odissi exists in two major styles, the first perfected by women and focussed on solemn,spiritual temple dance (maharis); the second perfected byboys dressed as girls (gotipuas)[18] which diversified to include athletic and acrobatic moves, and were performed from festive occasions in temples to general folksy entertainment.[6] Modern Odissi productions by Indian artists have presented a diverse range of experimental ideas, culture fusion, themes and plays.[19]
Odissi was the only Indian dance form present inMichael Jackson's 1991 hit single "Black or White".
The foundations of Odissi are found inNatya Shastra, the ancient Hindu Sanskrit text of performance arts.[20][21] The basic dance units described in theNatya Shastra, all 108 of them, are identical to those in Odissi.[21] The text is attributed to the ancient scholarBharata Muni, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE,[22][23] but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE.[24] The most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters.[22][25] The text, states Natalia Lidova, describes the theory of Tāṇḍava dance (Shiva), the theory of rasa, of bhāva, expression, gestures, acting techniques, basic steps, standing postures – all of which are part of Indian classical dances.[22][26] Dance and performance arts, states this ancient text,[27] are a form of expression of spiritual ideas, virtues and the essence of scriptures.[28] TheNatya Shastra refers to fourpravrittis (methods of expressive delivery) in vogue –Avanti,Dakshinatya,Panchali andOdra-Magadhi; of these, theOdra refers to Odisha.[29]
More direct historical evidence of dance and music as an ancient performance art are found in archaeological sites such as caves and in temple carvings ofBhubaneswar,Konark andPuri.[21][30] The Manchapuri cave inUdayagiri shows carvings ofdance and musicians, and this has been dated to the time ofJain kingKharavela in the first or second century BCE. TheHathigumpha inscriptions, also dated to the same ruler, mention music and dance :[29][31]
(he [the king]) versed in the science of theGandharvas (i.e., music), entertains the capital with the exhibition ofdapa, dancing, singing and instrumental music and by causing to be held festivities and assemblies (samajas)...
—Hathigumpha inscription, Line 5, ~ 2nd–1st century BCE[32][33]
The classical music tradition of Odisha, known asOdissi music, also has ancient roots. Archeologists have reported the discovery of 20-key, carefully shaped polished basalt lithophone inSankarjang, the highlands of Odisha, which is dated to about 1000 BCE.[34][35]
TheHindu,Jain andBuddhist archaeological sites in Odisha state, particularly the Assia range of hills show inscriptions and carvings of dances that are dated to the 6th to 9th century CE. Important sites include the Ranigumpha in Udaygiri, and various caves and temples at Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and Alatgiri sites. The Buddhist icons, for example, are depicted as dancing gods and goddesses, with Heruka, Vajravarahi, and Marichi in Odissi-like postures.[36][37] Historical evidence, states Alexandra Carter, shows that OdissiMaharis (Hindu temple dancers) and dance halls architecture (nata-mandapa) were in vogue at least by the 9th century CE.[38]
According toKapila Vatsyayan, theKalpasutra of Jainism, in its manuscripts discovered in Gujarat, includes classical Indian dance poses – such as theSamapada, theTribhangi and theChauka of Odissi. This, states Vatsyayan, suggests that Odissi was admired or at least well known in distant parts of India, far from Odisha in the medieval era, to be included in the margins of an important Jain text.[39] However, the Jain manuscripts use the dance poses as decorative art in the margins and cover, but do not describe or discuss the dance. Hindu dance texts such as theAbhinaya Chandrika andAbhinaya Darpana provide a detailed description of the movements of the feet, hands, the standing postures, the movement and the dance repertoire.[40] It includes illustrations of thekaranas mentioned inNatya Shastra.[41] Similarly, the illustrated Hindu text on temple architecture from Odisha, theShilpa Prakasha, deals with Odia architecture and sculpture, and includes Odissi postures.[42]
Actual sculptures that have survived into the modern era and panelreliefs in Odia temples, dated to be from the 10th to 14th century, show Odissi dance. This is evidenced inJagannatha temple inPuri, as well as other temples ofVaishnavism,Shaivism,Shaktism and Vedic deities such asSurya (Sun) in Odisha.[5] There are several sculptures of dancers and musicians inKonark Sun Temple andBrahmeswara Temple inBhubaneswar.[1][6]
The composition of the poetic texts by 8th century Shankaracharya and particularly of divine love inspiredGitagovinda by 12th century Jayadeva influenced the focus and growth of modern Odissi.[43] Odissi was performed in the temples by the dancers calledMaharis, who played out these spiritual poems and underlying religious plays, after training and perfecting their art of dance starting from an early age, and who were revered as auspicious to religious services.[5][43]
After 12th-century, Odia temples, monasteries and nearby institutions such as thePuspagiri in the eastern Indian subcontinent came under waves of attacks and ransacking by Muslim armies, a turmoil that impacted all arts and eroded the freedoms previously enjoyed by performance artists.[11] The official records of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq's invasion inOdisha (1360–1361 CE), for example, describe the destruction of theJagannath temple as well as numerous other temples, defacing of dancing statues, and ruining of dance halls.[44] This led to a broad decline in Odissi and other religious arts, but there were some benevolent rulers in this period who supported arts particularly through performances at courts.[11] During the Sultanate and Mughal era ofIndia, the temple dancers were moved to entertain the Sultan's family and courts.[45] They became associated withconcubinage to the nobility.[citation needed]
The Odissi dance likely expanded in the 17th century, states Alexandra Carter, under King Ramachandradeva's patronage.[46] This expansion integrated martial arts (akhanda) and athletics into Odissi dance, by engaging boys and youth calledGotipuas, as a means to physically train the young for the military and to resist foreign invasions.[46] According to Ragini Devi, historical evidence suggests that theGotipuas tradition was known and nurtured in the 14th century, by Raja of Khordha.[47]
During theBritish Raj, the officials of the colonial government ridiculed the temple traditions, while Christian missionaries launched a sustained attack on the moral outrage of sensuousness of Odissi and other Hindu temple dance arts.[11][48][49] In 1872, a British civil servant named William Hunter watched a performance at the Jagannatha temple in Puri, then wrote, "Indecent ceremonies disgraced the ritual, and dancing girls with rolling eyes put the modest worshipper to the blush...", and then attacked them as idol-worshipping prostitutes who expressed their devotion with "airy gyrations".[50]
Christian missionaries launched the "anti-dance movement" in 1892, to ban all such dance forms.[48] The dancers were frequently stigmatized as prostitutes by Europeans during thecolonial era.[51][52] In 1910, the British colonial government in India banned temple dancing,[53] and the dance artists were reduced to abject poverty from the lack of any financial support for performance arts, combined with stereotyping stigma.[46]
The temple dance ban and cultural discrimination during colonial rule marshalled a movement by Hindus to question the stereotypes and to revive the regional arts ofIndia, including Odissi.[48][49][50] Due to these efforts, the classical Indian dances witnessed a period of renaissance and reconstruction, which gained momentum particularly after Indians gained their freedom from colonialism.[54]
Odissi, along with several other major Indian dances gained recognition after efforts by many scholars and performers in the 1950s, particularly byKavichandra Kalicharan Pattanayak, an Oriya poet, dramatist and researcher. Pattanayak is also credited with naming the dance form as "Odissi".[11][55]
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Odissi, in the classical and medieval period has been, a team dance founded on Hindu texts.[6] This drama-dance involved women (Maharis) enacting a spiritual poem or a religious story either in the inner sanctum of a Hindu temple, or in theNatamandira attached to the temple.[56] The Odissi performingMaharis combined pure dance with expression, to play out and communicate the underlying text throughabhinaya (gestures).[56][57] The performance art evolved to include another aspect, wherein teams of boys – dressed as girls – calledGotipuas expanded the Odissi repertoire, such as by adding acrobatics and athletic moves, and they performed both near the temples and open fairs for general folksy entertainment.[6][46] In the Indian tradition, many of the accomplishedgotipuas became thegurus (teachers) in their adulthood.[46] Modern Odissi is a diversified performance art, men have joined the women, and its reconstruction since the 1950s have added new plays and aspects of other Indian dances.
Love is a universal theme and one of the paradigmatic values in Indian religions. This theme is expressed through sensuous love poems and metaphors of sexual union in Krishna-related literature, and as longing eros (Shringara) in its dance arts such as in Odissi, from the early times.[46][58] Hinduism, states Judith Hanna, encourages the artist to "strive to suggest, reveal or re-create the infinite, divine self", and art is considered as "the supreme means of realizing the Universal Being".[59] Physical intimacy is not something considered as a reason for shame, rather considered a form of celebration and worship, where the saint is the lover and the lover is the saint.[60] This aspect of Odissi dancing has been subdued in the modern post-colonial reconstructions, states Alexandra Carter, and the emphasis has expanded to "expressions of personal artistic excellence as ritualized spiritual articulations".[46]
The traditional Odissi repertoire, like all classical Indian dances, includesNritta (pure dance, solo),Nritya (dance with emotions, solo) andNatya (dramatic dance, group).[61][62] These three performance aspects of Odissi are described and illustrated in the foundational Hindu texts, particularly theNatya Shastra,Abhinaya Darpana and the 16th-centuryAbhinaya Chandrika by Maheshwara Mahapatra of Odisha.[61][62]
Odissi dance recitals are in Odia and Sanskrit language and the music strictly follows ragas and talas of theOdissi music tradition.[61] The talas used in Odissi dance areEkatali, Khemata, Rupaka, Tripata, Jhampa, Jati Tala, Adatali, Matha, Aditala, Sarimana, Kuduka and others.
Traditional Odissi repertoire sequence starts with an invocation calledMangalacharana.[16] Ashloka (hymn) in praise of a god or goddess is sung, such as to Jagannath (anavatar of Vishnu), the meaning of which is expressed through dance.[16] Mangalacharana is followed byPushpanjali (offering of flowers) andBhumi Pranam (salutation to mother earth).[16] The invocation also includesTrikhandi Pranam or the three-fold salutation – to the devas (gods), to the gurus (teachers) and to the lokas or rasikas (fellow dancers and audience).[65]
The next sequential step in an Odissi performance isBatu, also known asBattu Nrutya orSthayee Nrutya orBatuka Bhairava.[16][66] It is a fast pace, pure dance (nritta) performed in the honor ofShiva. There is no song or recitation accompanying this part of the dance, just rhythmic music. This pure dance sequence in Odissi builds up to a Pallavi which is often slow, graceful and lyrical movements of the eyes, neck, torso and feet and slowly builds in a crescendo to climax in a fast tempo at the end.[16][66]
Thenritya follows next, and consists ofAbhinaya, or an expressional dance which is an enactment of a song or poetry.[16][66] The dancer(s) communicate the story in a sign language, usingmudras (hand gestures),bhavas (enacting mood, emotions), eye and body movement.[67] The dance is fluid, graceful and sensual. Abhinaya in Odissi is performed to verses recited inSanskrit orOdia language.[68] Most common are Abhinayas on Oriya songs or SanskritAshthapadis or Sanskritstutis like theDashavatara Stotra (depicting the ten incarnations ofVishnu) or theArdhanari Stotra (half man, half woman form of the divine).[citation needed] Many regionally performed Abhinaya compositions are based on the Radha-Krishna theme.[43] The Astapadis of the Radha-Krishna love poemGita Govinda written by Jayadeva are usually performed in Odisha, as part of the dance repertoire.[16][69]
Thenatya part, or dance drama, is next in sequence. Usually Hindu mythologies, epics and legendary dramas are chosen as themes.[70]
A distinctive part of the Odissi tradition is the inclusion ofMoksha (orMokshya[17]) finale in the performance sequence. This is the concluding item of a recital.[16]Moksha in Hindu traditions means “spiritual liberation”. This dance movement traditionally attempts to convey a sense of spiritual release and soul liberation, soaring into the realm of pure aesthetics.[17] Movement and pose merge in a fast pace pure dance climax.[16]
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The basic unit of Odissi are calledbhangas. These are made up of eightbelis, or body positions and movements, combined in many varieties.[41] Motion isuthas (rising or up),baithas (sitting or down) orsthankas (standing).[41] The gaits or movement on the dance floor is calledchaalis, with movement tempo linked to emotions according to the classical Sanskrit texts. Thus, for example,burhas or quick pace suggest excitement, while a slow confused pace suggests dejection. For aesthetics, movement is centered on a core, a point in space or floor, and each dancer has her imaginary square of space, with spins and expression held within it.[41] The foot movement orpada bhedas too have basic dance units, and Odissi has six of these, in contrast to four found in most classical Indian dances.[41]
The three primary dance positions in Odissi are:[16]
Mudras orHastas are hand gestures which are used to express the meaning of a given act.[72] Like all classical dances of India, the aim of Odissi is in part to convey emotions, mood and inner feelings in the story by appropriate hand and facial gestures. There are 63Hastas in modern Odissi dance, and these have the same names or structure as those in the pan-Indian Hindu texts, but most closely matching those in theAbhinaya Chandrika.[41][72] These are subdivided into three, according to the traditional texts:[72]
The Mudra system is derived from the "Abhinaya Darpana" by Nandikeshavara and the ancientNatya Shastra of Bharata Muni.[72]
The Odissi dancers are colorfully dressed with makeup and jewellery. Thesari worn by Odissi dancers are brightly coloured, and usually of local silk (Pattasari).[73] It is worn with pleats, or may have a pleat tailor stitched in front, to allow maximum flexibility during the footwork.[74] These saris have traditional prints ofOdisha with regional designs and embellishments, and may be theSambalpuri sari andBomkai sari.[citation needed]
The jewellery includes silver pieces, a metal favored in regional tradition.[75] The hair is tied up, and typically drawn into an elaborate bun resembling a Hindu temple spire, and decorated withseenthi.[74][76] The hairstyle may contain a moon shaped crest of white flowers,[74] or a reed crown calledmukoot with peacock feathers (symbolism forKrishna). The dancers forehead is marked withtikka, and adorned with various jewelry such as theallaka (head piece on which the tikka hangs). The eyes are ringed withkajal (black eyeliner).[77]
Ear covers calledkapa or ear rings decorate the sides of the head, while necklace adorns the neck. The dancer wears a pair of armlets also calledbahichudi orbajuband, on the upper arm. The wrist is covered withkankana (bangles).[77] At the waist they wear an elaborate belt which ties down one end of the sari. The ankles are decorated with a leather piece on top of which are bells (ghungroo).[75] The dancer's palms and soles may be painted with red coloured dye called thealta.[77]
Modern Odissi male performers weardhoti – a broadcloth tied around waist, pleated for movement, and tucked between legs; usually extends to knee or lower. Upper body is bare chested, and a long thin folded translucent sheet wrapping over one shoulder and usually tucked below a wide belt.[74]
| Oṛiśī Sangīta |
| Odissi music |
|---|
 MahāprabhuJagannātha |
| Composers |
| Shāstras |
| Compositions |
| Instruments |
Odissi dance is accompanied by the traditional classical music of the state of Odisha,Odissi music. Rooted in the ancient ritual music tradition dedicated to LordJagannatha, Odissi music has a rich history spanning over two thousand years, distinguished by its uniquesangita-shastras (musical treatises), a specialized system of Ragas and Talas, and a distinctive style of performance characterised by theandolita gamaka. The primary Odissimela ragas areKalyana,Nata,Sri,Baradi,Gouri, Panchama,Dhanasri,Karnata,Bhairabi andSokabaradi.[78]
Odissi dance, states Ragini Devi, is a form of "visualized music", wherein theRagas andRaginis, respectively the primary and secondary musical modes, are integrated by the musicians and interpreted through the dancer.[79] Each note is a means, has a purpose and with a mood in classical Indian music, which Odissi accompanies to express sentiments in a song throughParija.[79] This is true whether the performance is formal, or less formal as inNartana andNatangi used during festive occasions and the folksy celebration of life.[79]
Like most Indian dance forms, an Odissi troupe performs with the accompaniment of a musical ensemble. The mini-orchestra consists of a number of instruments, often varying slightly by region; the ubiquitoustanpura[80] is used for a consistent, droning ambience throughout, with themardala[80] for percussion. Melodic instruments range from theharmonium,bansuri (bamboo flute) orsarangi to thesitar andviolin.[80] Additionally,manjira (finger cymbals) or other small, percussive instruments may be used.[80][16] At times, vocalists may be featured, usually singing simple, rhythmic phrases and melodies with dancing specifically choreographed to match.
The Odissi tradition existed in three schools:Mahari, Nartaki, andGotipua:
Kelucharan Mohapatra,Pankaj Charan Das,Deba Prasad Das and Raghunath Dutta were the four major gurus who revived Odissi in the late forties and early fifties.Sanjukta Panigrahi was a leading disciple of Kelucharan Mohapatra who popularized Odissi by performing in India and abroad. In the mid-sixties, three other disciples of Kelucharan Mohapatra,Kumkum Mohanty andSonal Mansingh, were known for their performances in India and abroad. Some other notable disciples include, Debi Basu,Jhelum Paranjape,Shubhada Varadkar, Daksha Mashruwala andNandita Behera. Laximipriya Mohapatra performed a piece of Odissi abhinaya in the Annapurna Theatre in Cuttack in 1948, a show upheld as the first classical Odissi dance performance after its contemporary revival.[84] GuruMayadhar Raut played a pivotal role in giving Odissi dance its classical status. He introducedMudra Vinyoga in 1955 andSancharibhava in the Odissi dance items, and portrayedShringara Rasa inGita Govinda Ashthapadis. His notable compositions includePashyati Dishi Dishi andPriya Charu Shile, composed in 1961.[85]
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Odissi has been included inIndian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar'sBTech syllabus since 2015 as the first Indian national technical institute to introduce any classical dance in syllabus.[86][87][88]
Guinness World Records has acknowledged the feat of the largest congregation of Odissi dancers in a single event. 555 Odissi dancers performed at the event hosted on 23 December 2011, in the Kalinga stadium, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. The dancers performed themangalacharana, Battu, Pallavi, Abhinaya andMokshya dance items from the Odissi repertoire.[89][90]
More than 1000 Odissi dancers performed at the World Cultural Festival[91][92] 12 March 2016. This is till date the largest congregation of Odissi dancers in a single event.
An Odissi dance centre has been opened from January 2016, at theUniversity of Oxford.[93] Known asOxford Odissi Centre, it is an initiative of the Odissi dancer and choreographerBaisali Mohanty who is also a post-graduate scholar at theUniversity of Oxford.[94]
Beside holding regular Odissi dance classes at its institution, theOxford Odissi Centre also conducts Odissi dance workshops at other academic institutions in the United Kingdom.[95][96]
Quote: "A summation of the signal importance of the Natyasastra for Hindu religion and culture has been provided by Susan Schwartz, "In short, the Natyasastra is an exhaustive encyclopedic dissertation of the arts, with an emphasis on performing arts as its central feature. It is also full of invocations to deities, acknowledging the divine origins of the arts and the central role of performance arts in achieving divine goals (...)".
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