Most mythological stories about Odin survive from the 13th-centuryProse Edda and an earlier collection of Old Norse poems, thePoetic Edda, along with other Old Norse items likeYnglinga saga. TheProse Edda and other sources depict Odin as the head of the pantheon, sometimes called theÆsir,[a] and bearinga spear anda ring. Wider sources depict Odin as the son ofBestla andBorr; brother toVili and Vé; and husband to the goddessFrigg, with whom he fatheredBaldr. Odin hasmany other sons, includingThor, whom he sired with the earth-goddessJörð. He is sometimes accompanied by animal familiars, such as the ravensHuginn and Muninn and the wolvesGeri and Freki. TheProse Edda describes Odin and his brothers'creation of the world through slaying the primordial beingYmir, and his giving of life tothe first humans. Odin is often referred to as long-bearded, sometimes as an old man, and also as possessing only one eye, havingsacrificed the other for wisdom.
Odin is widely regarded as a god of the dead and warfare. In this role, he receives slain warriors—theeinherjar—atValhöll ("Carrion-hall" or "Hall of the Slain") in the realm ofAsgard. ThePoetic Edda associates him withvalkyries, perhaps as their leader. In the mythic future, Odin leads theeinherjar atRagnarök, where he is killed by the monstrous wolfFenrir. Accounts by early travellers to Northern Europe describehuman sacrifices being made to Odin. In Old English texts, Odin iseuhemerized as an ancestral figure for royalty and is frequently depicted as a founding figure for various Germanic peoples, such as theLangobards. In some later folklore, he is a leader of theWild Hunt, a ghostly procession of the dead.
Odin has an attested history spanning over a thousand years. He is an important subject of interest toGermanic scholars. Some scholars consider the god's relations to other figures—as reflected, for example in the etymological similarity of his name to the name ofFreyja's husbandÓðr. Others discuss his historical lineage, exploring whether he derives fromProto-Indo-European mythology or developed later inGermanic society. In modern times, most forms of the new religious movementHeathenry venerate him; in some, he is the central deity. The god regularly features across all forms of modern media, especiallygenre fiction, and—alongside others in the Germanic pantheon—has lent his name to a day of the week,Wednesday, in many languages.
Internal andcomparative evidence all point to the ideas of a divine possession or inspiration, and anecstaticdivination.[8][9] In hisGesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (1075–1080 AD),Adam of Bremen explicitly associatesWodan with the Latin termfuror, which can be translated as 'rage', 'fury', 'madness', or 'frenzy' (Wodan id est furor : "Odin, that is,furor").[10] As of 2011, an attestation ofProto-NorseWoðinz, on theSträngnäs stone, has been accepted as probably authentic, but the name may be used as a related adjective instead meaning "with a gift for (divine) possession" (ON:øðinn).[11]
Other Germanic cognates derived from*wōðaz includeGothicwoþs ('possessed'), Old Norseóðr ('mad, frantic, furious'), Old Englishwōd ('insane, frenzied') andDutchwoed ('frantic, wild, crazy'), along with thesubstantivized forms Old Norseóðr ('mind, wit, sense; song, poetry'), Old Englishwōþ ('sound, noise; voice, song'), Old High Germanwuot ('thrill, violent agitation') andMiddle Dutchwoet ('rage, frenzy'), from the same root as the original adjective. The Proto-Germanic terms*wōðīn ('madness, fury') and*wōðjanan ('to rage') can also be reconstructed.[2] Early epigraphic attestations of the adjective includeun-wōdz ('calm one', i.e. 'not-furious'; 200 CE) andwōdu-rīde ('furious rider'; 400 CE).[9]
Woðinz (read from right to left), a probably authentic attestation of a pre-Viking Age form of Odin, on theSträngnäs stone
PhilologistJan de Vries has argued that the Old Norse deities Óðinn andÓðr were probably originally connected (as in the doubletUllr–Ullinn), withÓðr (*wōðaz) being the elder form and the ultimate source of the nameÓðinn (*wōða-naz). He further suggested that the god of rage Óðr–Óðinn stood in opposition to the god of glorious majesty Ullr–Ullinn in a similar manner to the Vedic contrast betweenVaruna andMitra.[12]
The adjective*wōðaz ultimately stems from aPre-Germanic form*uoh₂-tós, which is related to theProto-Celtic terms*wātis, meaning 'seer, sooth-sayer' (cf.Gaulishwāteis,Old Irishfáith 'prophet') and *wātus, meaning 'prophesy, poetic inspiration' (cf. Old Irishfáth 'prophetic wisdom, maxims',Old Welshguaut 'prophetic verse, panegyric').[8][9][13] According to some scholars, theLatin termvātēs ('prophet, seer') is probably a Celtic loanword from the Gaulish language, making*uoh₂-tós ~ *ueh₂-tus ('god-inspired') a shared religious term common to Germanic and Celtic rather than an inherited word of earlierProto-Indo-European (PIE) origin.[8][9] In the case a borrowing scenario is excluded, a PIEetymon*(H)ueh₂-tis ('prophet, seer') can also be posited as the common ancestor of the attested Germanic, Celtic and Latin forms.[5]
Other names
More than 170 names are recorded for Odin; the names are variously descriptive of attributes of the god, refer to myths involving him, or refer to religious practices associated with him. This multitude makes Odin the god with the most known names among the Germanic peoples.[14] Steve Martin has pointed out that the name Odinsberg (Ounesberry, Ounsberry, Othenburgh)[15] inCleveland Yorkshire, now corrupted toRoseberry (Topping), may derive from the time of the Anglian settlements, with nearby Newton under Roseberry and Great Ayton[16] having Anglo Saxon suffixes. The very dramatic rocky peak was an obvious place for divine association, and may have replaced Bronze Age/Iron Age beliefs of divinity there, given that a hoard of bronze votive axes and other objects was buried by the summit.[17][18] It could be a rare example, then, of Nordic-Germanic theology displacing earlier Celtic mythology in an imposing place of tribal prominence.
The modern Englishweekday nameWednesday derives from Old EnglishWōdnesdæg, meaning 'day of Wōden'. Cognate terms are found in other Germanic languages, such asMiddle Low German and Middle DutchWōdensdach (modern Dutchwoensdag),Old FrisianWērnisdei (≈Wērendei) andOld NorseÓðinsdagr (cf. Danish, Norwegian, Swedishonsdag). All of these terms derive from Late Proto-Germanic *Wodanesdag ('Day of Wōðanaz'), acalque of LatinMercurii dies ('Day ofMercury'; cf. modern Italianmercoledì, Frenchmercredi, Spanishmiércoles).[20][21]
Attestations
Roman era to Migration Period
One of theTorslunda plates. The figure to the left was cast with both eyes, but afterwards the right eye was removed.[22]The nameWōđnas on a bracteate from the early 5th century AD, written as mirrored text
The earliest records of the Germanic peoples were recorded by the Romans, and in these works Odin is frequently referred to—via a process known asinterpretatio romana (where characteristics perceived to be similar by Romans result in identification of a non-Roman god as a Roman deity)—as the Roman godMercury. The first clear example of this occurs in the Roman historianTacitus's late 1st-century workGermania, where, writing about the religion of theSuebi (a confederation ofGermanic peoples), he comments that "among the gods Mercury is the one they principally worship. They regard it as a religious duty to offer to him, on fixed days, human as well as other sacrificial victims. Hercules and Mars they appease by animal offerings of the permitted kind" and adds that a portion of theSuebi also venerate "Isis". In this instance, Tacitus refers to the god Odin as "Mercury", Thor as "Hercules", andTýr as "Mars". The"Isis" of the Suebi has been debated and may represent "Freyja".[23]
Anthony Birley noted that Odin's apparent identification with Mercury has little to do with Mercury's classical role of being messenger of the gods, but appears to be due to Mercury's role ofpsychopomp.[23] Other contemporary evidence may also have led to the equation of Odin with Mercury; Odin, like Mercury, may have at this time already been pictured with a staff and hat, may have been considered a trader god, and the two may have been seen as parallel in their roles as wandering deities. But their rankings in their respective religious spheres may have been very different.[24] Also, Tacitus's "among the gods Mercury is the one they principally worship" is an exact quote fromJulius Caesar'sCommentarii de Bello Gallico (1st century BCE) in which Caesar is referring to theGauls and not the Germanic peoples. Regarding the Germanic peoples, Caesar states: "[T]hey consider the gods only the ones that they can see, the Sun, Fire and the Moon", which scholars reject as clearly mistaken, regardless of what may have led to the statement.[23]
There is no direct, undisputed evidence for the worship of Odin/Mercury among theGoths, and the existence of a cult of Odin among them is debated.[25] Richard North andHerwig Wolfram have both argued that the Goths did not worship Odin, Wolfram contending that the use of Greek names of the week in Gothic provides evidence of that.[26] One possible reading of the GothicRing of Pietroassa is that the inscription "gutaniowi hailag" means "sacred to Wodan-Jove", but this is highly disputed.[25]
The earliest clear reference to Odin by name is found on a C-bracteate discovered in Denmark in 2020, part of theVindelev Hoard. Dated to as early as the 400s, the bracteate features a Proto-NorseElder Futhark inscription reading "He is Odin’s man" (iz Wōd[a]nas weraz).[27] Although the English kingdoms were nominallyconverted to Christianity by the end of the 7th century, Woden isfrequently listed as a founding figure among the Old English royalty.[28]
Odin is also either directly or indirectly mentioned a few times in the surviving Old English poetic corpus, including theNine Herbs Charm and likely also theOld English rune poem. Odin may also be referenced in the riddleSolomon and Saturn. In theNine Herbs Charm, Woden is said to have slain awyrm (serpent,Germanic dragon) by way of nine "glory twigs". Preserved from an 11th-century manuscript, the poem is, according to Bill Griffiths, "one of the most enigmatic of Old English texts". The section that mentions Woden is as follows:
+ wyrm com snican, toslat he nan, ða genam woden VIIII wuldortanas, sloh ða þa næddran þæt heo on VIIII tofleah Þær gaændade æppel and attor þæt heo næfre ne wolde on hus bugan.[29]
Translation:
A serpent came crawling (but) it destroyed no one when Woden took nine twigs of glory, (and) then struck the adder so that it flew into nine (pieces). There archived apple and poison that it never would re-enter the house.[29]
—Bill Griffiths (2006)
The emendation ofnan to 'man' has been proposed. The nextstanza comments on the creation of the herbschervil andfennel while hanging in heaven by the 'wise lord' (witig drihten) and before sending them down among mankind. Regarding this, Griffith comments that "In a Christian context 'hanging in heaven' would refer tothe crucifixion; but (remembering that Woden was mentioned a few lines previously) there is also a parallel, perhaps a better one, with Odin, as his crucifixion was associated with learning."[29] The Old English gnomic poemMaxims I also mentions Woden by name in the (alliterative) phraseWoden worhteweos, ('Woden made idols'), in which he is contrasted with and denounced against theChristian God.[30]
The Old English runeós, which is described in the Old English rune poem
The Old Englishrune poem recounts the Old English runic alphabet, thefuthorc. The stanza for the runeós reads as follows:
ōs byþ ordfruma ǣlcre sprǣce wīsdōmes wraþu and wītena frōfur and eorla gehwām ēadnys and tō hiht[31]
Translation:
god is the origin of all language wisdom's foundation and wise man's comfort and to every hero blessing and hope[31]
—Stephen Pollington (2008)
The first word of this stanza,ōs (Latin 'mouth') is ahomophone for Old Englishos, a particularly heathen word for 'god'. Due to this and the content of the stanzas, several scholars have posited that this poem is censored, having originally referred to Odin.[32]Kathleen Herbert comments that "Os was cognate withAs in Norse, where it meant one of theÆsir, the chief family of gods. In Old English, it could be used as an element in first names: Osric, Oswald, Osmund, etc. but it was not used as a word to refer to the God of Christians. Woden was equated with Mercury, the god of eloquence (among other things). The tales about the Norse god Odin tell how he gave one of his eyes in return for wisdom; he also won the mead of poetic inspiration. Luckily for Christian rune-masters, the Latin wordos could be substituted without ruining the sense, to keep the outward form of the rune name without obviously referring to Woden."[33]
In the prose narrative ofSolomon and Saturn, "Mercurius the Giant" (Mercurius se gygand) is referred to as an inventor of letters. This may also be a reference to Odin, who is in Norse mythology the founder of the runic alphabets, and the gloss a continuation of the practice of equating Odin with Mercury found as early as Tacitus.[34] One of theSolomon and Saturn poems is additionally in the style of later Old Norse material featuring Odin, such as the Old Norse poemVafþrúðnismál, featuring Odin and thejötunnVafþrúðnir engaging in a deadly game of wits.[35]
Odin and Frea look down from their window in the heavens to the Winnili women in an illustration byEmil Doepler, 1905.Winnili women with their hair tied as beards look up at Godan and Frea in an illustration by Emil Doepler, 1905.
The 7th-centuryOrigo Gentis Langobardorum, andPaul the Deacon's 8th-centuryHistoria Langobardorum derived from it, recount a founding myth of the Langobards (Lombards), a Germanic people who ruled a region of theItalian Peninsula. According to this legend, a "small people" known as theWinnili were ruled by a woman namedGambara who had two sons,Ybor and Aio. TheVandals, ruled byAmbri and Assi, came to the Winnili with their army and demanded that they pay them tribute or prepare for war. Ybor, Aio, and their mother Gambara rejected their demands for tribute. Ambri and Assi then asked the god Godan for victory over the Winnili, to which Godan responded (in the longer version in theOrigo): "Whom I shall first see when at sunrise, to them will I give the victory."[36]
Meanwhile, Ybor and Aio called upon Frea, Godan's wife. Frea counselled them that "at sunrise the Winnil[i] should come, and that their women, with their hair let down around the face in the likeness of a beard should also come with their husbands". At sunrise, Frea turned Godan's bed around to face east and woke him. Godan saw the Winnili and their whiskered women and asked, "who are those Long-beards?" Frea responded to Godan, "As you have given them a name, give them also the victory". Godan did so, "so that they should defend themselves according to his counsel and obtain the victory". Thenceforth the Winnili were known as theLangobards ('long-beards').[37]
Writing in the mid-7th century,Jonas of Bobbio wrote that earlier that century the Irish missionaryColumbanus disrupted an offering of beer to Odin (vodano) "(whom others called Mercury)" inSwabia.[38] A few centuries later, 9th-century document from what is nowMainz, Germany, known as theOld Saxon Baptismal Vow records the names of three Old Saxon gods,UUôden ('Woden'),Saxnôte, andThunaer ('Thor'), whom pagan converts were to renounce asdemons.[39]
Odin Heals Balder's Horse by Emil Doepler, 1905
A 10th-century manuscript found inMerseburg, Germany, features a heathen invocation known as theSecond Merseburg Incantation, which calls upon Odin and other gods and goddesses from the continental Germanic pantheon to assist in healing a horse:
Phol ende uuodan uuoran zi holza. du uuart demo balderes uolon sin uuoz birenkit. thu biguol ensinthgunt,sunna era suister, thu biguol en friia,uolla era suister thu biguol en uuodan, so he uuola conda: sose benrenki, sose bluotrenki, sose lidirenki: ben zi bena, bluot si bluoda, lid zi geliden, sose gelimida sin![40]
Translation:
Phol andWoden travelled to the forest. Then was forBaldur's foal its foot wrenched. Then encharmed itSindgund (and)Sunna her sister, then encharmed itFrija (and)Volla her sister, then encharmed itWoden, as he the best could, As the bone-wrench, so for the blood wrench, (and) so the limb-wrench bone to bone, blood to blood, limb to limb, so be glued.[40]
—Bill Griffiths translation
In Old English Pedigrees
Pendant fromWinteringham showing a man embracing two ravens
Old English royal genealogies record Woden as an ancestor of the kings ofLindsey,Mercia,Deira andBernicia (which eventually becameNorthumbria,Wessex, andEast Anglia), accounting for in 7 of the 8 genealogies, and all but Essex, who instead traced their ancestry toSaxnot.[41] Some of these genealogies expand on ancestry beyond Woden, giving his father as Frealaf beginning in the 8th century.[41]
The Welsh 9th-centuryHistoria Brittonum also includes Woden in its pedigree of Hengist, and shows Woden's ancestry as "VVoden, filii Frealaf, filii Fredulf, filii Finn, filii Fodepald, filii Geta",[42] who is said to be the son of a god other than Yahweh.[43] This lines up with the Lindsey genealogy which says that Frealaf was the son of Friothulf, son of Finn, son of Godulf, son of Geat,[41] although Nennius seems to have replaced Godulf with Fodepald. Other genealogies of Odin include further ancestry beyond Geat, giving Geat's father as Tætwa son of Beaw son of Sceldi son of Heremod son of Itermon son of Hathra son of Guala son of Bedwig son of Sceaf, who is the son ofNoah from theBible.[44]
Viking Age to post-Viking Age
A 16th-century depiction of Norse gods byOlaus Magnus: from left to right,Frigg, Odin, and Thor
In the 11th century, chroniclerAdam of Bremen recorded in ascholion of hisGesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum that a statue of Thor, whom Adam describes as "mightiest", sat enthroned in theTemple at Uppsala (located in Gamla Uppsala, Sweden) flanked by Wodan (Odin) and "Fricco". Regarding Odin, Adam defines him as "frenzy" (Wodan, id est furor) and says that he "rules war and gives people strength against the enemy" and that the people of the temple depict him as wearing armour, "as our people depict Mars". According to Adam, the people of Uppsala had appointed priests (gothi) to each of the gods, who were to offer up sacrifices (blót), and in times of war sacrifices were made to images of Odin.[10]
In the 12th century, centuries after Norway was "officially" Christianised, Odin was still being invoked by the population, as evidenced by a stick bearing a runic message found among theBryggen inscriptions in Bergen, Norway. On the stick, both Thor and Odin are called upon for help; Thor is asked to "receive" the reader, and Odin to "own" them.[45]
Poetic Edda
The trio of gods giving life to the first humans,Ask and Embla, by Robert Engels, 1919.
Odin is mentioned or appears in most poems of thePoetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from traditional source material reaching back to the pagan period.
The poemVöluspá features Odin in a dialogue with an undeadvölva, who gives him wisdom from ages past and foretells the onset ofRagnarök, the destruction and rebirth of the world. Among the information thevölva recounts is the story of the first human beings (Ask and Embla), found and given life by a trio of gods; Odin,Hœnir, andLóðurr:In stanza 17 of thePoetic Edda poemVöluspá, thevölva reciting the poem states thatHœnir,Lóðurr and Odin once found Ask and Embla on land. Thevölva says that the two were capable of very little, lacking inørlög and says that they were given three gifts by the three gods:
The meaning of these gifts has been a matter of scholarly disagreement and translations therefore vary.[49]
Later in the poem, thevölva recounts the events of theÆsir–Vanir War, the war betweenVanir and theÆsir, two groups of gods. During this, the first war of the world, Odin flung his spear into the opposing forces of theVanir.[50] Thevölva tells Odin that she knows where he has hidden his eye; in the springMímisbrunnr, and from it "Mímir drinks mead every morning".[51] After Odin gives her necklaces, she continues to recount more information, including a list ofvalkyries, referred to asnǫnnor Herians 'the ladies of War Lord'; in other words, the ladies of Odin.[52] In foretelling the events ofRagnarök, thevölva predicts the death of Odin; Odin will fight the monstrous wolfFenrir during the great battle atRagnarök. Odin will be consumed by the wolf, yet Odin's sonVíðarr will avenge him by stabbing the wolf in the heart.[53] After the world is burned and renewed, the surviving and returning gods will meet and recall Odin's deeds and "ancient runes".[54]
The poemHávamál (Old Norse 'Sayings of the High One') consists entirely of wisdom verse attributed to Odin. This advice ranges from the practical ("A man shouldn't hold onto the cup but drink in moderation, it's necessary to speak or be silent; no man will blame you for impoliteness if you go early to bed"), to the mythological (such as Odin's recounting of his retrieval ofÓðrœrir, the vessel containing themead of poetry), and to the mystical (the final section of the poem consists of Odin's recollection of eighteen charms).[55] Among the various scenes that Odin recounts is his self-sacrifice:
While the name of the tree is not provided in the poem and other trees exist in Norse mythology, the tree is near universally accepted as the cosmic treeYggdrasil, and if the tree isYggdrasil, then the nameYggdrasil (Old Norse 'Ygg's steed') directly relates to this story. Odin is associated with hanging andgallows;John Lindow comments that "the hanged 'ride' the gallows".[59]
After being put to sleep by Odin and being awoken by the heroSigurd, the valkyrieSigrdrífa says a pagan prayer; illustration (1911) byArthur Rackham.
In the prose introduction to the poemSigrdrífumál, the heroSigurd rides up toHindarfell and heads south towards "the land of theFranks". On the mountainSigurd sees a great light, "as if fire were burning, which blazed up to the sky".Sigurd approaches it, and there he sees askjaldborg (atactical formation ofshield wall) with a banner flying overhead.Sigurd enters theskjaldborg, and sees a warrior lying there—asleep and fully armed.Sigurd removes the helmet of the warrior, and sees the face of a woman. The woman'scorslet is so tight that it seems to have grown into the woman's body.Sigurd uses his swordGram to cut the corslet, starting from the neck of the corslet downwards, he continues cutting down her sleeves, and takes the corslet off her.[60]
The woman wakes, sits up, looks atSigurd, and the two converse in two stanzas of verse. In the second stanza, the woman explains that Odin placed a sleeping spell on her which she could not break, and due to that spell she has been asleep a long time.Sigurd asks for her name, and the woman givesSigurd ahorn ofmead to help him retain her words in his memory. The woman recites a heathen prayer in two stanzas. A prose narrative explains that the woman is namedSigrdrífa and that she is a valkyrie.[61]
A narrative relates thatSigrdrífa explains toSigurd that there were two kings fighting one another. Odin had promised one of these—Hjalmgunnar—victory in battle, yet she had "brought down"Hjalmgunnar in battle. Odin pricked her with a sleeping-thorn in consequence, told her that she would never again "fight victoriously in battle", and condemned her to marriage. In response,Sigrdrífa told Odin she had sworn a great oath that she would never wed a man who knew fear.Sigurd asksSigrdrífa to share with him her wisdom of all worlds. The poem continues in verse, whereSigrdrífa providesSigurd with knowledge in inscribingrunes, mystic wisdom, andprophecy.[62]
Prose Edda
Odin is mentioned throughout the books of theProse Edda, composed in the 13th century and drawing from earlier traditional material. The god is introduced at length in chapter nine of theProse Edda bookGylfaginning, which explains that he is described as ruling overAsgard, the domain of the gods, on his throne, that he is the 'father of all', and that from him all the gods, all of humankind (by way ofAsk and Embla), and everything else he has made or produced. According toGylfaginning, in Asgard:
There the gods and their descendants lived and there took place as a result many developments both on earth and aloft. In the city there is a seat calledHlidskialf, and when Odin sat in that throne he saw overall worlds and every man's activity and understood everything he saw. His wife was calledFrigg Fiorgvin's daughter, and from them is descended the family line that we call the Æsir race, who have resided in Old Asgard and the realms that belong to it, and that whole line of descent is of divine origin. And this is why he can be called All-father, that he is father of all gods and of men and of everything that has been brought into being by him and his power.The earth was his daughter and his wife. Out of her he begot the first of his ons, that isAsa-Thor.[63]
In theProse Edda bookGylfaginning (chapter 38), the enthroned figure ofHigh (Harr), tellsGangleri (kingGylfi in disguise) that two ravens namedHuginn and Muninn sit on Odin's shoulders. The ravens tell Odin everything they see and hear. Odin sends Huginn and Muninn out at dawn, and the birds fly all over the world before returning at dinner-time. As a result, Odin is kept informed of many events. High adds that it is from this association that Odin is referred to as "raven-god". The above-mentioned stanza fromGrímnismál is then quoted.[64]
In the same chapter, the enthroned figure of High explains that Odin gives all of the food on his table to his wolvesGeri and Freki and that Odin requires no food, for wine is to him both meat and drink.[64]
Heimskringla and sagas
Óðinn throws his spear at theVanir host in an illustration byLorenz Frølich (1895)
Odin is mentioned several times in the sagas that make upHeimskringla. In theYnglinga saga, the first section ofHeimskringla, aneuhemerised account of the origin of the gods is provided. Odin is introduced in chapter two, where he is said to have lived in "the land or home of theÆsir" (Old Norse:Ásaland eða Ásaheimr), the capital of which beingÁsgarðr.Ásgarðr was ruled by Odin, a great chieftain, and was "a great place for sacrifices". It was the custom there that 12 temple priests were ranked highest; they administered sacrifices and held judgements over men. "Calleddiar or chiefs", the people were obliged to serve under them and respect them. Odin was a very successful warrior and travelled widely, conquering many lands. Odin was so successful that he never lost a battle. As a result, according to thesaga, men came to believe that "it was granted to him" to win all battles. Before Odin sent his men to war or to perform tasks for him, he would place his hands upon their heads and give them abjannak ('blessing', ultimately from Latinbenedictio) and the men would believe that they would also prevail. The men placed all of their faith in Odin, and wherever they called his name they would receive assistance from doing so. Odin was often gone for great spans of time.[65]
Chapter 3 says that Odin had two brothers,Vé and Vili. While Odin was gone, his brothers governed his realm. Once Odin was gone for so long that theÆsir believed that he would not return, his brothers began to divvy up Odin's inheritance, "but his wifeFrigg they shared between them. However, afterwards, [Odin] returned and took possession of his wife again".[65] Chapter 4 describes theÆsir–Vanir War. According to the chapter, Odin "made war on theVanir". TheVanir defended their land and the battle turned to a stalemate, both sides having devastated each other's lands. As part of a peace agreement, the two sides exchanged hostages. One of the exchanges went awry and resulted in theVanir decapitating one of the hostages sent to them by theÆsir,Mímir. TheVanir sentMímir's head to theÆsir, whereupon Odin "took it and embalmed it with herbs so that it would not rot, and spoke charms [Old Norsegaldr] over it", which imbued the head with the ability to answer Odin and "tell him manyoccult things".[66]
InVölsunga saga, the great kingRerir and his wife (unnamed) are unable to conceive a child; "that lack displeased them both, and they fervently implored the gods that they might have a child. It is said thatFrigg heard their prayers and told Odin what they asked", and the two gods subsequently sent aValkyrie to presentRerir an apple that falls onto his lap while he sits on a burial mound andRerir's wife subsequently becomes pregnant with the namesake of theVölsung family line.[67]
Local folklore and folk practice recognised Odin as late as the 19th century inScandinavia. In a work published in the mid-19th century,Benjamin Thorpe records that onGotland, "many traditions and stories of Odin the Old still live in the mouths of the people". Thorpe notes that, inBlekinge in Sweden, "it was formerly the custom to leave a sheaf on the field for Odin's horses", and cites other examples, such as inKråktorpsgård,Småland, where abarrow was purported to have been opened in the 18th century, purportedly containing the body of Odin. After Christianization, the mound was known asHelvetesbackke (Swedish "Hell's Mound"). Local legend dictates that after it was opened, "there burst forth a wondrous fire, like a flash of lightning", and that a coffin full of flint and a lamp were excavated. Thorpe additionally relates that legend has it that a priest who dwelt aroundTroienborg had once sowed some rye, and that when the rye sprang up, so came Odin riding from the hills each evening. Odin was so massive that he towered over the farm-yard buildings, spear in hand. Halting before the entry way, he kept all from entering or leaving all night, which occurred every night until the rye was cut.[69]
Thorpe relates that "a story is also current of a golden ship, which is said to be sunk inRunemad, near theNyckelberg, in which, according to tradition, Odin fetched the slain from thebattle ofBråvalla toValhall", and thatKettilsås, according to legend, derives its name from "oneKetill Runske, who stole Odin's runic staves" (runekaflar) and then bound Odin's dogs, bull, and amermaid who came to help Odin. Thorpe notes that numerous other traditions existed in Sweden at the time of his writing.[70]
Thorpe records (1851) that in Sweden, "when a noise, like that of carriages and horses, is heard by night, the people say: 'Odin is passing by'".[71]
Odin and the godsLoki andHœnir help a farmer and a boy escape the wrath of a bet-winningjötunn inLoka Táttur orLokka Táttur, a Faroese ballad dating to theLate Middle Ages.[72]
Archaeological record
References to or depictions of Odin appear on numerous objects.Migration Period (5th and 6th century CE) gold bracteates (types A, B, and C) feature a depiction of a human figure above a horse, holding a spear and flanked by one or two birds. The presence of the birds has led to the iconographic identification of the human figure as the god Odin, flanked byHuginn andMuninn. Like theProse Edda description of the ravens, a bird is sometimes depicted at the ear of the human, or at the ear of the horse. Bracteates have been found in Denmark, Sweden, Norway and, in smaller numbers, England and areas south of Denmark.[73] Austrian GermanistRudolf Simek states that these bracteates may depict Odin and his ravens healing a horse and may indicate that the birds were originally not simply his battlefield companions but also "Odin's helpers in his veterinary function."[74]
Vendel Period helmet plates (from the 6th or 7th century) found in a grave in Sweden depict a helmeted figure holding a spear and a shield while riding a horse, flanked by two birds. The plate has been interpreted as Odin accompanied by two birds; his ravens.[75]
Two of the 8th century picture stones from the island of Gotland, Sweden depict eight-legged horses, which are thought by most scholars to depictSleipnir: theTjängvide image stone and theArdre VIII image stone. Both stones feature a rider sitting atop an eight-legged horse, which some scholars view as Odin. Above the rider on theTjängvide image stone is a horizontal figure holding a spear, which may be a valkyrie, and a female figure greets the rider with a cup. The scene has been interpreted as a rider arriving at the world of the dead.[76] The mid-7th centuryEggja stone bearing the Odinic nameharas (Old Norse 'army god') may be interpreted as depictingSleipnir.[77]
A pair of identicalGermanic Iron Age bird-shaped brooches fromBejsebakke in northern Denmark may be depictions ofHuginn andMuninn. The back of each bird features a mask-motif, and the feet of the birds are shaped like the heads of animals. The feathers of the birds are also composed of animal-heads. Together, the animal-heads on the feathers form a mask on the back of the bird. The birds have powerful beaks and fan-shaped tails, indicating that they are ravens. The brooches were intended to be worn on each shoulder, after Germanic Iron Age fashion.[78] ArchaeologistPeter Vang Petersen comments that while the symbolism of the brooches is open to debate, the shape of the beaks and tail feathers confirms the brooch depictions are ravens.Petersen notes that "raven-shaped ornaments worn as a pair, after the fashion of the day, one on each shoulder, makes one's thoughts turn towards Odin's ravens and the cult of Odin in the Germanic Iron Age."Petersen says that Odin is associated withdisguise, and that the masks on the ravens may be portraits of Odin.[78]
TheOseberg tapestry fragments, discovered within the Viking AgeOseberg ship burial in Norway, features a scene containing two black birds hovering over a horse, possibly originally leading a wagon (as a part of a procession of horse-led wagons on the tapestry). In her examination of the tapestry, scholarAnne Stine Ingstad interprets these birds asHuginn andMuninn flying over a covered cart containing an image of Odin, drawing comparison to the images ofNerthus attested by Tacitus in 1 CE.[79]
Excavations inRibe, Denmark have recovered aViking Age lead metal-caster's mould and 11 identical casting-moulds. These objects depict a moustached man wearing a helmet that features two head-ornaments. Archaeologist Stig Jensen proposes these head-ornaments should be interpreted as Huginn and Muninn, and the wearer as Odin. He notes that "similar depictions occur everywhere theVikings went—from eastern England to Russia and naturally also in the rest of Scandinavia."[80]
A portion ofThorwald's Cross (a partly surviving runestone erected atKirk Andreas on theIsle of Man) depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf, his right foot in its mouth, and a large bird on his shoulder.[81][full citation needed] Andy Orchard comments that this bird may be eitherHuginn orMuninn.[82]Rundata dates the cross to 940,[83] while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century.[81] This depiction has been interpreted as Odin, with a raven or eagle at his shoulder, being consumed by the monstrous wolfFenrir during the events ofRagnarök.[81][84]
The 11th centuryLedberg stone in Sweden, similarly to Thorwald's Cross, features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four-legged beast, and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured byFenrir atRagnarök.[84] Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless, helmeted man, with his arms in a prostrate position.[84] TheYounger Futhark inscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication, but is followed by an encoded runic sequence that has been described as "mysterious,"[85] and "an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world."[84]
In November 2009, theRoskilde Museum announced the discovery and subsequent display of aniello-inlaid silver figurine found inLejre, which they dubbedOdin from Lejre. The silver object depicts a person sitting on a throne. The throne features the heads of animals and is flanked by two birds. The Roskilde Museum identifies the figure as Odin sitting on his throneHliðskjálf, flanked by the ravens Huginn and Muninn.[86]
Various interpretations have been offered for a symbol that appears on various archaeological finds known modernly as thevalknut. Due to the context of its placement on some objects, some scholars have interpreted this symbol as referring to Odin. For example,Hilda Ellis Davidson theorises a connection between thevalknut, the god Odin and "mental binds":
For instance, beside the figure of Odin on his horse shown on several memorial stones there is a kind of knot depicted, called thevalknut, related to thetriskele. This is thought to symbolize the power of the god to bind and unbind, mentioned in the poems and elsewhere. Odin had the power to lay bonds upon the mind, so that men became helpless in battle, and he could also loosen the tensions of fear and strain by his gifts of battle-madness, intoxication, and inspiration.[87]
Davidson says that similar symbols are found beside figures of wolves and ravens on "certain cremation urns" fromAnglo-Saxon cemeteries inEast Anglia. According to Davidson, Odin's connection tocremation is known, and it does not seem unreasonable to connect with Odin inAnglo-Saxon England. Davidson proposes further connections between Odin's role as bringer ofecstasy by way of the etymology of the god's name.[87]
A C-type bracteate (DR BR42) featuring a figure above a horse flanked by a bird
A plate from aSwedish Vendel era helmet featuring a figure riding a horse, accompanied by two ravens, holding a spear and shield, and confronted by a serpent
Figurine believed to be a representation of Odin found at theUppåkra temple
TheLedberg stone at Ledberg Church,Östergötland, Sweden
Beginning with Henry Petersen's doctoral dissertation in 1876, which proposed thatThor was the indigenous god of Scandinavian farmers and Odin a later god proper to chieftains and poets, many scholars of Norse mythology in the past viewed Odin as having been imported from elsewhere. The idea was developed byBernhard Salin on the basis of motifs in thepetroglyphs andbracteates, and with reference to the Prologue of theProse Edda, which presents the Æsir as having migrated into Scandinavia. Salin proposed that both Odin and therunes were introduced fromSoutheastern Europe in theIron Age. Other scholars placed his introduction at different times;Axel Olrik, during theMigration Age as a result ofGaulish influence.[88]
More radically, both the archaeologist and comparative mythologistMarija Gimbutas and the GermanicistKarl Helm argued that theÆsir as a group, which includes both Thor and Odin, were late introductions intoNorthern Europe and that the indigenous religion of the region had beenVanic.[89][90]
In the 16th century and by the entireVasa dynasty, Odin (Swedish:Oden) was officially considered the first king of Sweden by that country's government and historians. This was influenced by an embellished list of rulers invented byJohannes Magnus.[91]
Under thetrifunctional hypothesis ofGeorges Dumézil, Odin is assigned one of the core functions in theIndo-European pantheon as a representative of the first function (sovereignty) corresponding to the HinduVaruṇa (fury and magic) as opposed toTýr, who corresponds to the HinduMitrá (law and justice); while theVanir represent the third function (fertility).[92][93]
Another approach to Odin has been in terms of his function and attributes. Many early scholars interpreted him as a wind-god or especially as a death-god.[94] He has also been interpreted in the light of his association with ecstatic practices, andJan de Vries compared him to the Hindu godRudra and the GreekHermes.[95]
The god Odin has been a source of inspiration for artists working in fine art, literature, and music. Fine art depictions of Odin in the modern period include the pen and ink drawingOdin byggande Sigtuna (1812) and the sketchKing Gylfe receives Oden on his arrival to Sweden (1816) byPehr Hörberg; the drinking horn reliefOdens möte med Gylfe (1818), the marble statueOdin (1830) and the colossal bustOdin byBengt Erland Fogelberg, the statuesOdin (1812/1822) andOdin (1824/1825) byHermann Ernst Freund, thesgraffito over the entrance ofVilla Wahnfried in Bayreuth (1874) byR. Krausse, the paintingOdin (around 1880) byEdward Burne-Jones, the drawingThor und Magni (1883) byK. Ehrenberg, the marble statueWodan (around 1887) by H. Natter, the oil paintingOdin und Brunhilde (1890) byKonrad Dielitz, the graphic drawingOdin als Kriegsgott (1896) byHans Thoma, the paintingOdin and Fenris (around 1900) by Dorothy Hardy, the oil paintingWotan und Brünhilde (1914) byKoloman Moser, the paintingThe Road to Walhall byS. Nilsson, the wooden Oslo City Hall reliefOdin og Mime (1938) and the coloured wooden relief in the courtyard of the Oslo City HallOdin på Sleipnir (1945–1950) byDagfin Werenskiold, and the bronze relief on the doors of theSwedish Museum of National Antiquities,Odin (1950) byBror Marklund.[96]
Music inspired by or featuring the god includes the balletsOdins Schwert (1818) andOrfa (1852) byJ. H. Stunz and the opera cycleDer Ring des Nibelungen (1848–1874) by Richard Wagner.[98]
^The term "Æsir" is of unclear meaning. For example, some use the term as meaning all of the gods while others use it to refer a particular group of gods, excluding theVanir.
References
Notes
^Schulte, Michael (2006), "The transformation of the older fuþark: Number magic, runographic or linguistic principles?",Arkiv för nordisk filologi, vol. 121, pp. 41–74
^Elgee Frank, Elgee Harriet Wragg (1933).The Archaeology of Yorkshire. Methuen and Company Ltd.
^Haymes, Edward R. (2009). "Ring of the Nibelungen and theNibelungenlied: Wagner's Ambiguous Relationship to a Source".Studies in Medievalism XVII: Redefining Medievalism(s). Boydell & Brewer. p. 223.
Polomé, Edgar Charles (1970). "The Indo-European Component in Germanic Religion". In Puhvel, Jaan (ed.).Myth and Law Among the Indo-Europeans: Studies in Indo-European Comparative Mythology. University of California.ISBN978-0520015876.
Pollington, Stephen (2008).Rudiments of Runelore. Anglo-Saxon Books.ISBN978-1898281498.
Schach, Paul (1985). "Some Thoughts onVöluspá" as collected in Glendinning, R. J. Bessason, Heraldur (Editors).Edda: a Collection of Essays.University of Manitoba Press.ISBN0-88755-616-7.
Steuer, Heiko (2021).Germanen aus Sicht der Archäologie: Neue Thesen zu einem alten Thema. de Gruyter.
Thorpe, Benjamin (1851).Northern Mythology, Compromising the Principal Traditions and Superstitions of Scandinavia, North Germany, and the Netherlands: Compiled from Original and Other Sources. 3 vols. Volume 2Scandinavian Popular Traditions and Superstitions. Lumley.OCLC314195407.
.jpg)
_sid_103).jpg)
.jpg)
.svg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_by_Konrad_Dielitz.jpg)
