Nobunaga was an influential figure in Japanese history and is regarded as one of the three great unifiers of Japan, along with hisretainers,Toyotomi Hideyoshi andTokugawa Ieyasu. Nobunaga paved the way for the successful reigns of Hideyoshi and Ieyasu by consolidating power, as head of the very powerfulOda clan, through a series of wars against otherdaimyō beginning in the 1560s. The period when Nobunaga and Hideyoshi were in power is called theAzuchi–Momoyama period. The name "Azuchi–Momoyama" comes from the fact that Nobunaga's castle,Azuchi Castle, was located inAzuchi, Shiga; whileFushimi Castle, where Hideyoshi lived after his retirement, was located in Momoyama.[7]
Nobunaga emerged as the most powerfuldaimyō, overthrowing the nominally rulingshogunAshikaga Yoshiaki and dissolving theAshikaga Shogunate in 1573. He conquered most ofHonshu by 1580, and defeated theIkkō-ikki in the 1580s. Nobunaga's rule was noted for innovative military tactics, fostering of free trade, reforms of Japan's civil government, and the start of the Momoyama historical art period, but also for the brutal suppression of those who refused to cooperate or yield to his demands.
Nobunaga committedseppuku during theHonnō-ji Incident in 1582, when his retainerAkechi Mitsuhide ambushed and trapped him in a temple inKyoto. Nobunaga was succeeded by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who along with Tokugawa Ieyasu completed his campaign of national unification shortly afterward.
Portrait of Oda Nobunaga in colour on silk (1583, in Kobe City Museum, Important Cultural Property)
Oda Nobunaga was born on 23 June 1534 inNagoya,Owari Province, and was the heir ofOda Nobuhide, the head of the powerfulOda clan and a deputyshugo (military governor), and his lawful wifeDota Gozen.[8] Nobunaga was previously thought to have been born inNagoya Castle, but in recent years the theory that he was born in Shobata Castle has become more accepted. Nobunaga was given the childhood name of Kippōshi (吉法師), and through his childhood and early teenage years became well known for his bizarre behavior.
Nobunaga mostly spent his time between the age of 13 (the age of maturity at the time) and 18 in hunting, riding, practicing archery and shootingarquebus (still a novelty in Japan at the time), but also wrestling, swimming, watchingsumo and visiting taverns and brothels with his friends. He also showed complete disdain for formal clothing and proper social behavior of a lord, wearing sleeveless bathrobes and short trousers tied with hemp rope in public, eating melons while riding backwards on his horse, and often dancing in female clothing in taverns, gaining the nicknameThe Fool of Owari.[9][10]
Nobunaga was given Nagoya Castle by his father at the age of 8 and lived there for 13 years until he tookKiyosu Castle at the age of 21. He had one or two older brothers, but they were illegitimate sons. As the first legitimate son, Nobunaga was intended to succeed Nobuhide as leader of the Oda clan, and so he was separated from his mother and given special education. Fourkarō (chief retainers),Hayashi Hidesada,Hirate Masahide, Aoyama Nobumasa, and Naitō Shōsuke (or Katsusuke), were assigned to train and educate him for his future role.[11]
Nobunaga came to manhood and took the name Oda Saburō Nobunaga in 1546. He then led the forces of the Oda clan against rival Kira and Ohama in Mikawa for his first campaign in 1547.
In 1548 or 1549, Nobuhide made peace withSaitō Dōsan, lord ofMino Province (which had previously been hostile to Owari) through a political marriage between his son Nobunaga and Dōsan's daughter,Nōhime. Nobunaga took Nōhime as his lawful wife, and Dōsan became Nobunaga's father-in-law.[12] Nobunaga also became involved in government affairs at this time, gaining valuable political experience and insight.
In 1551, Oda Nobuhide died unexpectedly. It has been said that Nobunaga acted outrageously during his funeral, throwing ceremonialincense at the altar.[13] Although Nobunaga was Nobuhide's legitimate heir, a succession crisis occurred when some of the Oda clan opposed him. Nobunaga assembled a force of 1,000 men and used them to intimidate and dissuade his enemies, thus preventing a serious disruption in the transfer of power.
Sensing weakness, thedaimyōImagawa Yoshimoto sent an army under the command ofImagawa Sessai to lay siege to the castle atAnjō, whereOda Nobuhiro, Nobunaga's older brother, was living. To save his life, Nobunaga was compelled to turn over a hostage held by his clan at Honshōji temple, nine-year-old Matsudaira Takechiyo – later known asTokugawa Ieyasu – an exchange that helped solidify an alliance between other rival clans. Nobuhiro, frustrated by his low standing in the Oda clan, later plotted against Nobunaga with the assistance of another rival,Saitō Yoshitatsu; Nobunaga learned of the plot but chose to forgive his brother's conduct.
In early 1552, barely several months after his father's death, one of Oda's senior retainers,Yamaguchi Noritsugu [jp] and his sonYamaguchi Noriyoshi [jp] defected to the Imagawa clan. In response, Nobunaga attacked Noritsugu, but was defeated by Noriyoshi's forces at theBattle of Akatsuka. Nobunaga retreated and left contested lands in eastern Owari under Imagawa control.[9][10]
In spring 1552, Nobunaga faced a new challenge when his uncle,Oda Nobutomo,attacked Nobunaga's domain with the support ofShiba Yoshimune, governor ofOwari province. Nobunaga repelled the attack and burned the outskirts of his uncle's castle at Kiyosu to discourage further attempts. However, Nobutomo was spared any serious punishment.
In 1553, Hirate Masahide, who had been one of Nobunaga's closest advisors and mentors, committedseppuku. It is generally believed that he did so to admonish Nobunaga, but the actual motive is unclear.[b][14]: 68 Yoshimune tipped off Nobunaga that Nobutomo planned to assassinate him; Yoshimune was subsequently captured and put to death on Nobutomo's orders. Nobunaga mobilized his forces toblockade Kiyosu castle and set up a lengthy siege.
In 1554, Nobunaga finally achieved victory over the Imagawa clan at theBattle of Muraki Castle, reclaiming the lands he had lost to them.[15][16] After securing eastern Owari, Nobunaga then turned his attention back tothe siege at Kiyosu,[17]: 276 where he eventually defeated Nobutomo and forced him to die byseppuku.
In 1556, Saitō Yoshitatsu raised an army against his father, Saitō Dōsan, who was slain in combat at theBattle of Nagara-gawa. Nobunaga set out to Oura in Mino with troops to rescue his father-in-law, but immediately withdrew upon hearing of Dōsan's death. Thereafter, Yoshitatsu usurped his father's title and became lord of Mino.[14]
The loss of the Saitō clan's support further undermined faith in Nobunaga's leadership; key retainers such as Hayashi Hidesada, Hayashi Michitomo, and Shibata Katsuie soon turned on him. They raised an army to support his brother Nobuyuki (Nobukatsu), who was highly regarded within the Oda clan. Nobunaga defeated the rebels at theBattle of Ino, but at the plea of his birth mother, Dota Gozen, pardoned them. Despite his brother Michitomo's death in battle, Hidesada pledged his loyalty to Nobunaga and resumed serving him, while Katsuie chose to remain in Nobuyuki's service.
In 1557, however, Nobuyuki conspired with Oda Nobuyasu, lord of Iwakura Castle, to plot another rebellion. Shibata, disgusted by Nobuyuki's treachery and disloyalty, secretly warned Nobunaga. Nobunaga falsely claimed to have fallen ill and had Nobuyuki and his entourage assassinated when they came to visit him. It is said that eitherKawajiri Hidetaka orIkeda Tsuneoki carried out Nobuyuki's murder.[14]: 69
In 1558, Nobunaga sent an army to successfully protect Suzuki Shigeteru, lord of Terabe Castle, during theSiege of Terabe. Shigeteru had defected to Nobunaga's side from Imagawa Yoshimoto, adaimyō fromSuruga Province and one of the most powerful men in the Tōkaidō region. In July 1558, he defeated his cousin, Oda Nobukata, deputy governor of northern Owari atBattle of Ukino.
By 1559, Nobunaga had captured and destroyedIwakura Castle, eliminated all opposition within the Oda clan, and established his uncontested rule in Owari Province.[17]: 276
Imagawa Yoshimoto was a long-time opponent of Nobunaga's father, and had sought to expand his domain into Oda territory in Owari. In 1560, Imagawa Yoshimoto gathered an army of 25,000 men,[18] and marched toward the capital city ofKyoto, with the pretext of aiding the frailAshikaga Shogunate. TheMatsudaira clan also joined Yoshimoto's forces.
The Imagawa forces quickly overran the border fortresses of Washizu and Matsudaira forces led byMatsudaira Motoyasu tookMarune Fortress from the Oda clan. Against this, the Oda clan could rally an army of only 2,000 to 3,000 men.[12][19] Some of his advisors suggested that he take refuge at Kiyosu Castle and wait out a siege by the Imagawa, but Nobunaga refused, stating that "only a strong offensive policy could make up for the superior numbers of the enemy", and calmly ordered a counterattack against Yoshimoto.[17]
In June 1560, Nobunaga's scouts reported that Yoshimoto was resting at the narrow gorge of Dengaku-Kazama, ideal for a surprise attack, and that the Imagawa army was celebrating their victories over the Washizu and Marune fortresses. While Yoshimoto viewed victory ahead, Nobunaga's forces marched to theAtsuta Shrine, a fortified temple overlooking the Imagawa camp. Later, Nobunaga moved toZensho-ji fort [jp], set up a decoy army there, marched rapidly behind Yoshimoto's camp, and attacked after a terrific thunderstorm. Yoshimoto was killed by two Oda samurai.[20][21] With his victory in this battle, Oda Nobunaga gained greatly in prestige, and many samurai and warlords pledged fealty to him.
Kinoshita Tōkichirō, who would eventually become Toyotomi Hideyoshi, probably participated in the battle, but nothing is recorded from that time. His exploits were first recorded in the Mino Campaign.
Alliance with Matsudaira (later Tokugawa) and Takeda
Rapidly weakening in the wake of this battle, theImagawa clan no longer exerted control over the Matsudaira clan. In 1561, an alliance was forged between Oda Nobunaga and Matsudaira Motoyasu (who would become Tokugawa Ieyasu), despite the decades-old hostility between the two clans. Nobunaga also formed an alliance withTakeda Shingen through the marriage of his daughter to Shingen's son.[17]: 277–78 [22]
In 1561, Saitō Yoshitatsu, Nobunaga's brother-in-law, died suddenly of illness and was succeeded by his son, Nobunaga's nephew,Saitō Tatsuoki. Yoshitatsu murdered his father and brothers to become daimyō, and Nobunaga had attempted to avenge the murder of his father-in-law numerous times. Nobunaga's nephew Tatsuoki was young and much less effective as a ruler and military strategist than his father and grandfather.[12]: 57 Taking advantage of this situation, Nobunaga moved his base toKomaki Castle and started his campaign in Mino Province, defeating Tatsuoki in both theBattle of Moribe[14]: 216 and theBattle of Jushijo in June that same year.
By convincing Saitō retainers to abandon their incompetent and foolish master, Nobunaga significantly weakened theSaitō clan. In 1564, Oda Nobunaga dispatched his retainer,Kinoshita Tōkichirō, to bribe many of the warlords in the Mino area to support the Oda clan. In 1566, Nobunaga charged Kinoshita with buildingSunomata Castle on the bank of theSai River opposite Saitō territory to serve as a staging point for the Oda forces and to intimidate, surprise, and demoralize the enemy.
After taking possession of the castle, Nobunaga changed the name of bothInabayama Castle and the surrounding town toGifu. Nobunaga derived the termGifu from the legendary Mount Qi (岐山Qi inStandard Chinese) inChina, on which theZhou dynasty is fabled to have started. Nobunaga revealed his ambition to conquer the whole of Japan and also started using a new personalseal that readTenka Fubu (天下布武),[17]: 278 [23] literally "All under heaven, spreading military force", or more idiomatically, "All the world by force of arms". Remains of Nobunaga's residence in Gifu can be found today inGifu Park.[24]
Following Nobunaga's conquest of Mino Province in 1567, Nobunaga sentTakigawa Kazumasu on a campaign comprising two invasions ofIse Province in 1567 and 1568 that defeated numerous families of Ise (Ise was ruled nominally by theKitabatake clan andKanbe clan). After Nobunaga controlled Ise, his son,Oda Nobutaka was installed as the head of the Kanbe clan. Later in 1569, head of Kitabatake clan,Kitabatake Tomonori, adopted Nobunaga's second sonOda Nobukatsu.
Nobunaga also arranged forOichi, his sister, to marry rival warlordAzai Nagamasa fromOmi Province in an effort to cement an alliance. Nobunaga desired peaceful relations with theAzai clan because of their strategic position between the Oda clan's land and the capital, Kyoto.
Nobunaga agreed to install Yoshiaki as the new shogun and, grasping the opportunity to enter Kyoto, started his campaign. An obstacle in southern Ōmi Province was theRokkaku clan, led byRokkaku Yoshikata, who refused to recognize Yoshiaki as shogun and was ready to go to war to defend Yoshihide. In response, Nobunaga launched a rapid attack on Chōkō-ji Castle, driving the Rokkaku clan out of their castles.[17]: 278–79 (Later in 1570, the Rokkaku tried toretake the castle, but they were driven back by Oda forces led byShibata Katsuie), Other forces led byNiwa Nagahide defeated the Rokkaku on the battlefield and enteredKannonji Castle, before resuming Nobunaga's march to Kyoto.
The approaching Oda army influenced theMatsunaga clan to submit to the future shogun. ThedaimyōMatsunaga Hisahide kept his title by making this decision to ally his clan with Oda and the new shogun.
On 9 November 1568, Nobunaga entered Kyoto, drove out theMiyoshi clan, who had supported the 14th shogun and who fled toSettsu, and installed Yoshiaki as the 15th shogun of the Ashikaga Shogunate. However, Nobunaga refused the title of shogun's deputy (Kanrei), or any appointment from Yoshiaki, even though Nobunaga had great respect for theEmperor Ōgimachi.[17]: 279–81 [25]
After installing Yoshiaki as shogun, Nobunaga forced Yoshiaki to call alldaimyō to come to Kyoto and attend the court banquet.Asakura Yoshikage, head of theAsakura clan and regent of Ashikaga Yoshiaki, refused, which prompted Nobunaga to declare Asakura Yoshikage as a rebel.
In early 1570, Nobunaga then raised an army and marched on the Asakura clan's domain inEchizen.[17]: 281 Nobunaga besiegedKanagasaki Castle. This action created a conflict between Nobunaga and shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki. Yoshiaki secretly started an "anti-Nobunaga alliance", conspiring with otherdaimyō to get rid of Nobunaga. Azai Nagamasa, to whom Nobunaga's sister Oichi was married, broke the alliance with the Oda clan to honor the Azai-Asakura alliance, which had lasted for three generations.
With the help of the Rokkaku clan, Miyoshi clan, and theIkkō-ikki, the anti-Nobunaga alliance sprang into full force, taking a heavy toll on the Oda clan. After Nobunaga found himself facing both the Asakura and Azai forces and when defeat looked certain, Nobunaga decided toretreat from Kanagasaki, which he did successfully.
In July 1570, the Oda-Tokugawa allies laid siege toYokoyama Castle andOdani Castle in Ōmi Province. Later, the combined Azai-Asakura force marched out to confront Nobunaga. Nobunaga advanced to the southern bank of theAnegawa River.
The following morning, 30 July 1570, the battle began. Tokugawa Ieyasu joined his forces with Nobunaga, with the Oda and Azai clashing on the Anegawa east river while Tokugawa and Asakura grappled on the west of the river. The battle turned into a melee fought in the middle of the shallow Anegawa River.
For a time, Nobunaga's forces fought the Azai upstream, while the Tokugawa warriors fought the Asakura downstream. After the Tokugawa forces finished off the Asakura, they turned and hit the Azai's right flank. The troops of the Mino Triumvirate, who had been held in reserve, then came forward and hit the Azai left flank. Soon both the Oda and Tokugawa forces defeated the combined forces of the Asakura and Azai clans.[17]: 282
1573 represented the end of Azai and Asakura clans, as Nobunaga successfully destroyed the Azai and Asakura clans by driving them both to the point that their clan leaders committed suicide.[17]: 281, 285–86 [22]: 156 Afterdestroying Ichijōdani Castle, the castle home of Asakura Yoshikage, then pursuing Yoshikage to the Rokubō-kenshō monastery, where Yoshikage killed himself, Nobunaga then finished off the Azai clan at theSiege of Odani Castle.
Nobunaga faced a significant threat from the Ikkō-ikki, a resistance movement centered around theJōdo Shinshū sect ofBuddhism. The Ikkō-ikki began as a cult association for self-defense, but popular antipathy against thesamurai due to the constant violence of theSengoku period caused their numbers to swell. By the time of Nobunaga's rise to power, the Ikkō-ikki was a major organized armed force opposed to samurai rule in Japan.
In August 1570, Nobunaga launched theIshiyama Hongan-ji War against the Ikkō-ikki, while simultaneously fighting against his samurai rivals. In May 1571, Nobunaga besiegedNagashima, a series of Ikkō-ikki fortifications in Owari Province, beginning theSieges of Nagashima. However, Nobunaga's first siege of Nagashima ended in failure, as his trusted general Shibata Katsuie was severely wounded and many of his samurai were lost before retreating. Despite this defeat, Nobunaga was inspired to launch another siege, theSiege of Mount Hiei.
TheEnryaku-ji temple onMount Hiei was an issue for Nobunaga. The monastery'ssōhei (warrior monks) of theTendai school were aiding his opponents in the Azai-Asakura alliance and the temple was close to his base of power. In September 1571, Nobunaga preemptively attacked the Enryaku-ji temple, then besieged Mount Hiei and razed it.
In the process of making their way to the Enryaku-ji temple, Nobunaga's forces destroyed and burnt all buildings, killing monks,laymen, women, and children and eliminating anyone who had previously escaped their attack. It is said that "The whole mountainside was a great slaughterhouse and the sight was one of unbearable horror."[17]: 284
In July 1573, after the successful siege of Mount Hiei, Nobunaga besieged Nagashima a second time, personally leading a sizable force with manyarquebusiers. However, a rainstorm rendered his arquebuses inoperable while the Ikkō-ikki's own arquebusiers could fire from covered positions. Nobunaga himself was almost killed and forced to retreat, with the second siege being considered his greatest defeat.
In 1574, Nobunaga launched a third siege of Nagashima as his generalKuki Yoshitaka began a naval blockade and bombardment of Nagashima, allowing him to capture the outer forts of Nakae and Yanagashima as well as part of the Nagashima complex. The sieges of Nagashima finally ended when Nobunaga's men completely surrounded the complex and set fire to it, killing the remaining tens of thousands of defenders and inflicting tremendous losses to the Ikkō-ikki.[14]: 221–25
Simultaneously, Nobunaga had been besieging the Ikkō-ikki's main stronghold atIshiyama Hongan-ji in present-dayOsaka. Nobunaga'sSiege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji began to slowly make some progress, but the Mōri clan of theChūgoku region broke his naval blockade and started sending supplies into the strongly fortified complex by sea. As a result, in 1577, Nobunaga ordered Takigawa Kazumasu to suppress Ikko-ikki atKii Province,Hashiba Hideyoshi to conquer the Chūgoku region from the Mori clan, before advancing upon the Mori clan inNagato Province,[17]: 287, 306 Akechi Mitsuhide to pacifyTanba Province, Kuki Yoshitaka to support attack from the sea, and Nobunaga eventually blocked the Mōri's supply lines.[14]: 228 [17]: 288–89
In 1580, ten years after the siege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji began, the son of Chief AbbotKōsa surrendered the fortress to Nobunaga after their supplies were exhausted, and they received an official request from the Emperor to do so.[26] Nobunaga spared the lives of Ishiyama Hongan-ji's defenders but expelled them from Osaka and burnt the fortress to the ground. Although the Ikkō-ikki continued to make a last stand inKaga Province, Nobunaga's capture of Ishiyama Hongan-ji crippled them as a major military force.
One of the strongest rulers in the anti-Nobunaga alliance was Takeda Shingen, who had formerly been an ally of the Oda clan. At the apex of the anti-Nobunaga coalition, in 1572, Takeda Shingen orderedAkiyama Nobutomo, one of the "Twenty-Four Generals" of Shingen, toattack Iwamura castle. Nobunaga's aunt,Lady Otsuya, conspiring against the Oda clan, surrendered the castle to the Takeda, and married Nobutomo. Nobunaga was shocked by Shingen's betrayal, and his rage was immense. His letter toUesugi Kenshin was filled with angry words, stating, "Shingen knows nothing of a samurai's honor," "This grudge will never cease," and "I will never reconcile with Shingen, now or in the future."[27]
In the same year, Shingen decided to make a drive for Kyoto at the urging of the shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki, starting with invading Tokugawa territory. Nobunaga, tied down on the western front, sent lackluster aid to Tokugawa Ieyasu, who suffered defeat at theBattle of Mikatagahara in early 1573. However, after the battle, Tokugawa's forces launched night raids and convinced Takeda of an imminent counter-attack, thus saving the vulnerable Tokugawa with the bluff. This would play a pivotal role in Tokugawa's philosophy of strategic patience in his campaigns with Nobunaga. Shortly thereafter, the Takeda forces were neutralized after Shingen died in April 1573.[22]: 153–56
In 1575,Takeda Katsuyori, son of Takeda Shingen, moved to Tokugawa territory,attacked Yoshida castle and later besiegedNagashino Castle. Katsuyori, angered whenOkudaira Sadamasa rejoined the Tokugawa, had originally conspired withOga Yashiro to take the Tokugawa-controlledOkazaki Castle, the capital ofMikawa Province. This plot failed.[28]: 80–82 Tokugawa Ieyasu appealed to Nobunaga for help and Nobunaga personally led an army of about 30,000 men to the relief of Nagashino Castle. The combined force of 38,000 men under Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu devastated the Takeda clan at the Battle of Nagashino, the greatest defeat of the Takeda clan.
Conventionally, the "Battle of Nagashino" was regarded as a historic defeat in which Takeda Katsuyori ordered his cavalry to charge recklessly into a horse guard fence where arquebusiers were waiting for them, losing many Takeda officers and soldiers. Moreover, it has been said that Nobunaga developed a new battle strategy called "three-stage shooting", in which arquebusiers were arranged in several rows with the front row firing a volley, and then making way for the second row to fire. Once the second row had fired and made way for the third row, the first row had reloaded and were ready to fire again. This way the Oda could keep a relatively steady rate of musket fire.[29]
However, this was a theory developed by the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff based on Oze Hoan's Shinchō Ki and Tōyama Nobuharu's Sōken Ki, which are war chronicles. Later, as research based on documents, letters, and Ota Gyūichi'sShinchō Kōki progressed, many errors were pointed out. It is now believed that it was mainly the logistics in Nobunaga's hands that determined the winner.[c][30][31]
In early 1573, Yoshiaki initiated a siege against Nobunaga under the directive of the monkKennyo. Takeda Shingen and Asakura Yoshikage tried to subdue Yoshiaki. Azai Nagamasa, Matsunaga Hisahide, Sanninshu Miyoshi,Miyoshi Yoshitsugu, and others also participated in the siege against Nobunaga. Although the siege initially cornered Nobunaga's forces, it failed, as it was interrupted by the death of Takeda Shingen.
In mid 1573, when Yoshiaki began a revolt in Kyoto, he requested the help of the Matsunaga clan and allied with them. Yoshiaki and the Matsunaga clan gathered an army in Makishima castle in April and again in July which is when the revolt started. This angered Nobunaga, who invaded Kyoto. However, when Matsunaga Hisahide saw the hope for success was not achieved he returned to Nobunaga to fight the Miyoshi.
Nobunaga's entry into Kyoto presented him with a situation very different from that from which he had come. Nobunaga reportedly set fire to Kyoto, which forced Yoshiaki to retreat. He focused on Ashikaga Yoshiaki, who had openly declared hostility more than once, despite theImperial Court's intervention. Nobunaga was able to defeat Yoshiaki's forces, and the power of theAshikaga was effectively destroyed on 27 August 1573, when Nobunaga drove Yoshiaki out of Kyoto and sent him into exile. Yoshiaki became a Buddhist monk, shaving his head and taking the nameSho-san, which he later changed toRei-o In, bringing the Ashikaga Shogunate to an end.
After the Ashikaga Shogunate came to end, the authority of the Imperial Court of Emperor Ōgimachi also began to weaken. This trend reversed after Oda Nobunaga entered Kyoto in a show of allegiance that indicated that the Emperor had the Oda clan's support.
In 1574, Nobunaga was appointed to a rank of Lower Third Rank (Ju Sanmi) of the Imperial Court and made a Court Advisor (Sangi). Court appointments would continue to be lavished on a nearly annual basis, possibly in hope of placating him. Nobunaga acquired many official titles, including Major Counselor (Gondainagon), General of the Right of the Imperial Army (Ukon'etaishō), and Minister of the Right (Udaijin) in 1576.[32]
Azuchi Castle was built from 1576 to 1579 on Mount Azuchi on the eastern shore ofLake Biwa inŌmi Province.[33] Nobunaga intentionally built Azuchi Castle close enough to Kyoto that he could watch over and guard the approaches to the capital. Azuchi Castle's location was also strategically advantageous in managing the communications and transportation routes between Nobunaga's greatest foes -Uesugi to the north, the Takeda in the east, and theMōri to the west.[34] The castle and its nearby town were depicted on the so-calledAzuchi Screens, which Oda Nobunaga gave toPope Gregory XIII, who displayed them in theVatican collections.[35]
The fundamental policy of the Mōri clan was "to avoid conflict with Nobunaga" and in the early 1570s, even when issues arose, they continued a cautious diplomacy to prevent any decisive confrontations. However, when Terumoto placed Ashikaga Yoshiaki under his protection, war between the two families became inevitable.[36] The Mōri were drawn into the Ishiyama Hongan-ji War, Nobunaga's siege of a religious stronghold in Settsu, which he had begun in 1570. beginning with theBattle of Kizugawaguchi in 1576.
Terumoto turned to the vaunted Mōri navy. In 1576, First Battle of Kizugawaguchi Nobunaga's 'admiral', Kuki Yoshitaka, had cut the Honganji's sea-lanes and sat in blockade off the coast. Terumoto ordered his fleet, commanded byMurakami Takeyoshi, to make for the waters off Settsu and, once there, the navy inflicted an embarrassing defeat on Kuki and opened the Honganji's supply lines.
Later in 1578, at Second Battle of Kizugawaguchi, Kûki Yoshitaka defeated Takeyoshi and drove the Mōri away. Nobunaga also sendHashiba Hideyoshi to conquer the Chūgoku region from the Mori clan. A further attempt by the Mōri to break the blockade the following year was turned back, and in 1580 the Honganji surrendered.
The conflict between Oda and Uesugi was precipitated by Uesugi intervention in the domain of theHatakeyama clan inNoto Province, an Odaclient state. This event provoked the Uesugi incursion, acoup d'état led by the pro-Oda generalChō Tsugutsura, who killedHatakeyama Yoshinori, the lord of Noto and replaced him withHatakeyama Yoshitaka as a puppet ruler. In response,Uesugi Kenshin, the head of the Uesugi clan, mobilized an army and led it into Noto against Tsugutsura. Consequently, Nobunaga sent an army led by Shibata Katsuie and some of his most experienced generals to attack Kenshin. They clashed at theBattle of Tedorigawa in Kaga Province in 1577.
In November 1577, the Battle of Tedorigawa took place near theTedori River in Kaga Province. Kenshin tricked Nobunaga's forces into launching a frontal attack across the Tedorigawa and defeated him. Having suffered the loss of 1,000 men, the Oda forces withdrew south. The result was a decisive Uesugi victory, and Nobunaga considered ceding the northern provinces to Kenshin, but Kenshin's sudden death in early 1578 caused a succession crisis that ended the Uesugi's movement to the south.[14]: 12–13, 228, 230 [17]: 288
TheTenshō Iga War (天正伊賀の乱,Tenshō Iga no Ran) was two invasions ofIga province by the Oda clan during the Sengoku period. The province was conquered by Oda Nobunaga in 1581 after an unsuccessful attempt in 1579 by his son Oda Nobukatsu.
The name of the war is derived from theTenshōera name (1573–92) in which it occurred. Other names for the campaign include "The Attack on Iga" (伊賀攻め,Iga-zeme) or "Pacification of Iga" (伊賀平定,Iga Heitei). Oda Nobunaga himself toured the conquered province in early November 1581, and then withdrew his troops, placing control in Nobukatsu's hands.
Anukiyo-e byYoshitoshi depicting Nobunaga fighting in the Honnō-ji Incident
By 1582, Nobunaga was at the height of his power and, as the most powerful warlord, thede facto leader of Japan. Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu finally occupied Shinano and Kai Provinces, defeated the Takeda at the Battle of Tenmokuzan, destroying the clan and resulting in Takeda Katsuyori fleeing from the battle before committing suicide with his wife while being pursued by Oda forces.[14]
By this point, Nobunaga was preparing to launch invasions intoEtchu Province,Shikoku and Mōri clan domain. Nobunaga's former sandal-bearer, Hashiba Hideyoshi, invadedBitchū Province and laidsiege to Takamatsu Castle. The castle was vital to the Mōri clan, and losing it would have left Mōri's home domain vulnerable. More reinforcements led byMōri Terumoto arrived to relieve the siege, prompting Hideyoshi to ask in turn for reinforcements from Nobunaga.
Nobunaga immediately ordered his leading generals and also Akechi Mitsuhide to prepare their armies, with the overall expedition to be led by Nobunaga.[21]: 241 [17]: 307a Nobunaga left Azuchi Castle forHonnō-ji, a temple in Kyoto he frequented when visiting the city, where he was to hold atea ceremony. Hence, Nobunaga only had 30pages with him, while his son Oda Nobutada had brought 2,000 of hiscavalrymen.[21]: 243
Akechi Mitsuhide, stationed in Tanba province, led his army toward Kyoto under the pretense of following the order of Nobunaga, but as they were crossingKatsura River, he decided to assassinate Nobunaga for unknown reasons. The exact cause of his betrayal remains controversial.
Mitsuhide, aware that Nobunaga was nearby and unprotected for his tea ceremony, saw an opportunity to act. At that time, Mitsuhide is said to have announced to his troops that "The enemy awaits at Honnō-ji!" (敵は本能寺にあり, Teki wa Honnō-ji ni ari). But this is a later creation. In reality, Mitsuhide kept the target of the attack secret from his troops so that information would not leak out.[37]
On 21 June 1582, before dawn, the Akechi army surrounded the Honnō-ji temple with Nobunaga present, while another unit of Akechi troops was sent toMyōkaku-ji. Although Nobunaga and his servants resisted the unexpected intrusion, they were soon overwhelmed. Nobunaga also fought back for a while before retreating, and after letting the court ladies escape, he committedseppuku in one of the inner rooms.[38]
After capturing Honnō-ji, Mitsuhide attacked Nobutada, the eldest son and heir of Nobunaga, who also died by suicide.[17]: 307–08
Mitsuhide searched for Nobunaga's body but could not find it. As a result, he was unable to prove Nobunaga's death, thus neither providing justification for his rebellion nor gaining support from those who doubted Nobunaga's death.[39]
Later, when Nobunaga's retainer Toyotomi Hideyoshi learnt of his lord's death, he intercepted Mitsuhide's messenger trying to deliver a letter to the Mōri clan, informing them of Nobunaga's death and requesting an alliance, and withheld information. Hideyoshi managed to pacify the Mōri by demanding the suicide ofShimizu Muneharu in exchange for ending his siege of Takamatsu Castle, which the Mōri accepted. He then turned back to Kyoto with his forces in a swiftforced march known as theChūgoku Ōgaeshi.
Mitsuhide failed to establish his position after Nobunaga's death, and Oda forces under Hideyoshi defeated his army at theBattle of Yamazaki in July 1582. During a losing battle, Mitsuhide was killed in an instance ofochimusha-gari (落ち武者狩り), a medieval Japanese custom in which local samurai, farmers and bandits hunt fleeing samurai for bounty and the valuables on their person.
Hideyoshi continued and completed Nobunaga's conquest of Japan within the following decade.
Political situation in Japan circa 1582. The purple area was territory controlled by the Oda in 1560, grey area was the territory Nobunaga controlled at the time of his death in 1582.
The goal of national unification and a return to the comparative political stability of the earlierMuromachi period was widely shared by the multitude of autonomousdaimyō during the Sengoku period. Oda Nobunaga was the first for whom this goal seemed attainable. He controlled most ofHonshu shortly before his death in the Honnō-ji Incident of 1582.
The motive for the rebellion of Akechi Mitsuhide, the vassal who betrayed Nobunaga, remains unclear, partly because Mitsuhide himself did not say anything, and various theories are still being discussed.[40] After the incident, Mitsuhide declared to the world that he would rule over Nobunaga's territory, but was soon defeated by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The loss of his position and power so quickly gave rise to the idiomMikka Tenka (三日天下,lit.'a three-day reign').
Later, Hideyoshi succeeded in regaining Oda's territory and wrested control of it from the Oda clan, further expanding his dominion greatly. And when he was appointed to the highest rank ofkuge,Kanpaku, despite being a common-born samurai, and in 1590, eight years after the incident, he achieved the unification of Japan.[41]
After the death of Hideyoshi, Tokugawa Ieyasu completed the goal of national unification by subjugating localdaimyō under a hereditary shogunate, which was ultimately accomplished in 1603 when Ieyasu was granted the title ofShogun byEmperor Go-Yōzei following the successfulSekigahara Campaign of 1600.
The nature of the succession of power through the threedaimyō is reflected in a well-known Japanese idiom:
Nobunaga pounds the national rice cake, Hideyoshi kneads it, and in the end, Ieyasu sits down and eats it.[42]
The changing character of power through Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Ieyasu is reflected in another well-known idiom:[d][44]
Nobunaga said: "Little bird, sing. If you don't sing, I will kill you". Hideyoshi said: "Little bird, sing. If you don't sing, I will make you sing". Ieyasu said: "Little bird, sing. If you don't sing, I will wait for you to sing".
All three were born within eight years of each other (1534 to 1542), started their careers as samurai, and finished them as statesmen. Nobunaga inherited his father's domain at the age of 17, and quickly gained control of Owari Province throughgekokujo. Hideyoshi started his career in Nobunaga's army as anashigaru but quickly rose up through the ranks as a samurai. Ieyasu initially fought against Nobunaga as the heir of a rivaldaimyō, but later expanded his own inheritance through a profitable alliance with Nobunaga.[22]: 142
In 1579, Nobunaga's resignation from his posts as Udaijin (Minister of the Right) andUkonoe no daisho (Right general of the Imperial Guard) baffled the Imperial Court. This was because Nobunaga, who was on the verge of unifying the country, did not hold an official position that could shake the authority of the Imperial Court.[41]
Therefore, in May 1582, the Imperial Court sent a message to Nobunaga, offering him a government position of his choice amongSei-i Taishōgun, Kanpaku andDajō-daijin. However, Nobunaga did not give a clear reply and the 'Honnoji Incident' took place, so it remains unclear what kind of government scheme Nobunaga had in mind.[45][46]
In 1582, Nobunaga wasposthumously promoted and given the title of Dajō-daijin and thecourt rank of Junior First Rank (従一位,ju ichi-i). More than 300 years later, in 1917, he was further promoted and given the rank of Senior First Rank (正一位,shō ichi-i).[3][47]
In the addendum toLuís Fróis's 1582Annals of Japan (on Nobunaga's death), it is stated that Nobunaga intended to conquer China. According to Fróis, Nobunaga intended to organise a large fleet after the unification of Japan and to have his sons divide and rule the territory. However, there is no such statement in Japanese sources, and many researchers doubt its authenticity.[48]
According to Luís Fróis'sHistory of Japan, Nobunaga attempted to deify himself in his later years by building Sōken-ji in part of Azuchi Castle and installing a stone called Bonsan as a deity to replace him. Frois, a Christian, attributes this to Nobunaga's arrogance which drove him to the madness of wanting to be worshipped on earth, and the Honnō-ji Incident was his punishment.
Many researchers doubt the authenticity of Frois's description, as there is no mention of this in the Japanese sources. However, the existence of Bonsan itself is mentioned inShinchō Kōki. As for the reason for his self-deification, it is thought that it was to give legitimacy to those with Oda family blood to rule the country, with a view to establishing a hereditary shogunate after the unification of the country. Later, after their deaths, Hideyoshi and Ieyasu directed themselves to be worshipped as deities, with Hideyoshi being deified as Toyokuni daimyōjin and Ieyasu as Tōshō Daigongen.
In Japan, there have been no small number of persons who have become gods since ancient times. However, they were deified by others after they died as human beings, whereas these three are unique in that they willingly tried to become gods before they died.[48][49][50]
Nobunaga led a large army to Kyoto in honour of Ashikaga Shogun Yoshiaki and re-established the Muromachi Shogunate, under which he extended his power into the Kinai region. The conventional theory is that Nobunaga aimed from the outset to overthrow the Muromachi shogunate and clan system and, with Yoshiaki at the top, to seize real power himself, that is to establish a puppet government. In recent years, however, a theory has emerged that Nobunaga and Yoshiaki were good partners and that the final breakdown was due to Yoshiaki's betrayal of Nobunaga, and that Nobunaga did not originally intend to overthrow the Muromachi shogunate.[51][52]
As for the Imperial Court, it was conventionally believed that Nobunaga tried to put pressure on the Imperial Court and destroy the existing order. In recent years, however, it has begun to be thought that Nobunaga may have consistently valued the Emperor and the Imperial Court. For the emperors and court nobles, who had lost their territories to the samurais and were forced to live in poverty without access to financial resources, Nobunaga was a reliable daimyō who made huge donations, and for Nobunaga, his links with the imperial court helped to improve the Oda clan's image.[45][51]
After conquering Owari and Mino, Nobunaga used the seal ofTenka Fubu (天下布武) to promote his vision with a view to unifying the country. "Tenkafubu" means "spreading military power throughout the world", and it is the idea of ruling the country peacefully, in other words, ending the Warring States period and restoring peace and order.[46][53][54] He then put into action a plan for the economic development of the areas he controlled.
Starting with thematchlock gun, Nobunaga paved the way for unifying the country through a chain of innovations, from the development of military technology and new weapons, to the international supply chain for importing raw materials forammunition, to the development of domestic distribution networks, to the way the territory was governed.[55] Those innovations were supported by the financial resources obtained through his economic plans.[55]
Oda Nobunaga is known for his implementation of a series of innovative policies, such as the abolition of the barrier posts within his domain, thus allowing the freer passage of goods,[56] and promotion ofRakuichi Rakuza (楽市楽座), an economic policy that aimed to revitalize commerce[24][57] by allowing people to do business anywhere in the castle town, whereas previously they could only do business in designated areas. Rakuza attacked the privileges of the guilds and monopoly trade associations calledZa, favoring free business.[52][56]
At that time, samurai families controlled the farmlands and farmers, while temples, shrines, and court nobles controlled the commerce and distribution industry by controlling the Ichi (market) and Za (trade guilds). Nobunaga knew that his grandfather and father had gained wealth from the water transportation of Ise Bay by taking control of Tsushima and Atsuta ports. He himself also promoted the commercialization of his territory by increasing the circulation of goods and money through the above policies.[45][58] Nobunaga's promotion of raku-ichi raku-za was intended to deprive temples, shrines and court nobles of their privileges and allow the warrior class to dominate the territory in all areas.[58] In addition, the funds required to obtain the soldiers, guns, and other items that supported the unification of the country were obtained through this.[59][60]
Nobunaga also ordered the construction and improvement of roads and bridges of the Kinai region. He built bridges across inlets and rivers, chiseled out rocks to make steep roads more gradual, widened roads to three and a half meters, and planted pine trees and willows on both sides of them. Nobunaga developed not only land transportation, but also maritime transportation, including the waterways of Lake Biwa and the sea routes ofIse Bay and theSeto Inland Sea. These measures enabled not only the free passage of people but also the free transportation of goods, thus facilitating distribution. The development of logistics brought benefits not only economically but also militarily, allowing soldiers and munitions to be delivered to the battlefield quickly and reliably.[52][55][56][61]
In general, Nobunaga thought in terms of "unifying factors", in the words ofGeorge Sansom.[17]: 300–2
The Sengoku Daimyō of the time did not change their strongholds, and had to return to their home after each battle, making it difficult for the Takeda, Uesugi, and other clans far from Kyoto to go to Kyoto. However, Nobunaga continued to move his stronghold as his territory expanded in order to control Kyoto, which was essential for unifying the country.[59]He moved from one base to another, from Shobata, Kiyosu,Komakiyama, Gifu, and Azuchi, and his castle in Osaka, the diplomatic and economic center of East Asia, was under construction shortly before his death. He always based his seats of power in the nodes of regional distribution and ensured the maintenance of public peace in the area, thereby promoting the development of the local economy and the concentration of capital in the cities.[55]
Backed by his enormous economic power, Nobunaga overwhelmed his opponents by building stone-wall[e] castles such as Komakiyama Castle and Azuchi Castle, which consumed more labor and financial resources than conventional castles, and by constructing economic cities (castle towns) connected to them. Nobunaga thus politically extended his power throughout the country through civil engineering projects such as the construction of castles. Toyotomi Hideyoshi followed suit and builtIshigakiyama Castle andOsaka Castle.[62]
Nobunaga implemented financial reforms that introduced a new monetary system. In 1569, the "Oda Nobunaga Eiroku 12 Law" was enacted, which is regarded by some as the beginning of early modern monetary policy in Japan. It was an epoch-making attempt to "increase the volume of money in circulation" and "prevent the inflow of bad money" at the same time. A fixed exchange rate system was introduced, and coins, which had been mixed in disorderly fashion, were clearly defined as standard coins and deteriorated coins. The Oda Clan's guarantee gave value to coins that were considered degraded coins in other regions, revived many coins that had been excluded from trade, and stabilised commercial transactions. At the same time, by differentiating the value of coins according to their exchange rate, the government prevented an excessive influx of deteriorated coins.
Nobunaga also used gold and silver as currency to trade in high-value commodities. Nobunaga himself played a role in expanding the circulation of gold and silver by using gold and silver for purchases inMeibutsu-gari (名物狩り,lit.'specialty hunting').[63]
One of the attainments of Nobunaga's government, which aimed to unify the country, was theOda Kenchi (織田検地,lit.'Oda land survey'), which began in earnest in 1580, starting with the Kinai region. It was an administrative measure that required the daimyō under his command to submit their harvest in the form ofkokudaka figures. This was succeeded by Toyotomi Hideyoshi'sTaikō Kenchi (太閤検地,lit.'Taikō land survey').[55]
When asked by the Emperor and the Muromachi Shogun to assume the post of Vice Shogun, and offered the post of kanrei, which was effectively the highest rank in samurai society, Nobunaga declined and instead requested permission to rule directly over three of Japan's largest distribution centres,Sakai (Izumi province),Kusatsu andŌtsu (Ōmi Province).[45] Sakai, anautonomous city, was enjoying its golden days as an international trading port, overflowing with goods, the latest science and technology, and information from East Asia and the West, despite the territorial expansion wars of the Sengoku Daimyōs.
What Nobunaga sought from the merchants of Sakai was their enormous wealth, as well as their expertise in theNanban trade and their own trade routes to obtain raw materials for guns and gunpowder. Nobunaga tookImai Sōkyū, an upstart merchant from Sakai, under his control. Imai established Japan's first comprehensive military industry and supported Nobunaga's unification of Japan by mass-producing guns and securing an exclusive trading route for the import ofpotassium nitrate, a raw material for gunpowder that was not produced in Japan.Tsuda Sōgyū, a key figure in Sakai's self-governing organization, also severed ties withHongan-ji and submitted to Nobunaga.
Nobunaga demanded a large amount of war funds from Sakai. Sakai merchants initially refused, but were persuaded by Sōkyū and Sōgyū to accept it. Thus, Nobunaga obtained Sakai without fighting. Imai Sōkyū, Tsuda Sōgyū, andSen Sōeki (laterSen no Rikyu) were appointed as Nobunaga's tea masters and secured their positions as political merchants.[64][65]
Nobunaga made personnel decisions based on ability and results, not titles. Until then, the family culture of warlords had been one of respecting family lineage and passing down positions from generation to generation, but Nobunaga made a major shift to a personnel system based on merit. It is known that Hashiba Hideyoshi came from a poor peasant background in Owari, while Akechi Mitsuhide came from a samurai background in Mino, but had spent a long time as a poor ronin. These two men caught up with and eventually overtook Nobunaga's old vassals, including Shibata Katsuie, Niwa Nagahide, Sakuma Nobumori, and others. Among the Oda vassals, Mitsuhide was the first to becomethe lord of one province and one castle, and the second was Hideyoshi. This was unthinkable for other Sengoku Daimyō.[59][60]
Oda Nobunaga'sbreech-loading swivel gun, 16th century. This gun is thought to have been cast in PortugueseGoa,India. Caliber: 95 mm, length: 2880 mm.
Militarily, Nobunaga changed the way war was fought in Japan. An unprecedented military revolution was taking place in Japan at the time. Through a military revolution using the new technology of matchlock guns, he ended the Sengoku period of decentralization and moved Japan into the early modern era of centralization.[55] Nobunaga was the first of the other sengoku daimyo to own and use a large number of firearms from an early date.[66]
He changed the perception that matchlock guns, commonly known astanegashima, were unsuitable for actual combat due to their short range and inability to fire continuously, to the perception that they were invincible weapons by deploying in large numbers firing them all at once.[52]Local historiographyKunitomo Teppoki states that Nobunaga had already recognised the potential of guns in 1549, six years after they were introduced to Japan, and put Hashimoto Ippa in charge of gun production, and that 500 guns were completed in 1550.Shinchō Kōki also mentions that he learnt marksmanship from Hashimoto Ippa around 1550.[67][68]
Four years later, in 1554, he fielded guns for the first time at the Battle of Muraki Castle, where Nobunaga replaced his guns one after the other and fired them himself, taking the fort in a single day. TheBattle of Nagashino in 1575 is famous for the continuous firing of guns, but Nobunaga had already carried it out 21 years earlier.[68][69]
Documents left behind in Sakai, which was under the direct control of Nobunaga, describing the manufacture of guns reveal that Japan had already become the world's leading gun power, with mass production based on a division of labour for each part. Radiological analysis also revealed that Japanese-made guns using the Japanese sword forging technique were more stable in strength and more powerful because they contained fewer impurities.[70]
Although a mass production system for guns had been established, there was still no daimyō capable of providing a stable supply of ammunition. Nobunaga was the first to make this possible by establishing an international supply chain to import raw materials for ammunition from China and Southeast Asia through Portuguese merchants, which he facilitated by putting international port cities such as Sakai under his direct control and protecting the Jesuits.[55] Later, during the Tokugawa period, Japan exported large quantities of no longer needed firearms to the Netherlands, along with swords and other weapons.[71]
Nobunaga had the previously disparate spear lengths aligned to 3 ken (about 5.5 metres or 18 ft) or 3 and a half ken (about 6.4 metres or 21 ft). The spear lengths used in the Sengoku period were generally 2 ken (3.6 metres or 12 ft). However, when Nobunaga was a teenager, he saw his comrades beating each other with spears in amock battle and had his army replace their own spears with longer ones, as short spears were useless.[66][72]
The way spears were used in those days was for miscellaneous soldiers under Ashigaru with long spears to form a line and advance, swinging their spears down from above as if they were striking rather than stabbing. This alone was powerful enough, and if the long spearmen formed aYaribusuma (槍衾,lit.'line of spears') with their spearheads facing forward, they could sufficiently counter cavalry units, so the effect was enormous.[59]
Nobunaga introduced civil engineering not only in the political field but also in the military field by turning the battlefield into a large-scale civil engineering project. This was clearly beyond the scope of preparations for a favorable outcome of the war. He invaded enemy territory in force, mobilizing construction workers, carpenters, blacksmiths, founders, miners, and others to construct roads and build tsunagi-jiro (linking castles).[f] In attacking castles, he adopted the tsukejiro (attaching castle) strategy of building numerous fortifications around enemy castles and narrowing the siege while moving. Toyotomi Hideyoshi took charge of the works as a field supervisor under Nobunaga and later took over his methods.[55][66]
Nobunaga is thought to have favored gambling tactics such as surprise attacks because of the Battle of Okehazama, but in reality, he preferred to use overwhelming military power to overpower his opponents.[73]
Nobunaga tried to create astanding army by implementing the separation of soldiers and farmers. Samurais at that time were half-farmers and half-soldiers who spent most of their time as farmers, and only fought at the behest of their lords, who were also the owners of the farmland, in times of war. Therefore, they could not fight much during the busy farming season from summer to autumn.[74]
Nobunaga, on the other hand, attempted to separate soldiers from farmers, although not as thoroughly as Toyotomi Hideyoshi later did. Each time Nobunaga moved his base of operations, he promoted the concentration of his vassals under his castles. As a result, the separation of troops and agriculture was promoted, allowing for planned group training and the formation of army units of different typesSonae (備,lit.'preparation'), such as firearms units and cavalry units.[g][59][75][76]
Daimyo's bodyguards and messengers were calledUmamawari-shū (馬廻衆,lit.'horse related group'), and Nobunaga divided them into two groups. One group had a redHoro (cloak) on their backs, so they were calledAkahoro-shū (赤母衣衆,lit.'Red Mantle group'), and the other had a black Horo (cloak) on their backs, so they were calledKurohoro-shū (黒母衣衆,lit.'Black Mantle group'). The leader of Akahoro-shū wasMaeda Toshiie and the leader of Kurohoro-shū wasSassa Narimasa.[77][78]
Nobunaga placed great importance on intelligence warfare. After the Battle of Okehazama, he most highly valued Yanada Masatsuna, who reported every movement of the Imagawa forces that day, rather than the samurais who actually defeated Yoshimoto.[60]
Nobunaga adopted a system of area armies, which enabled him to react in multiple regions simultaneously, and operated it in a large scale.[59]
Oda Nobunaga's sphere of influence and the departments of each area armies.
Chugoku Front: Hashiba Hideyoshi
Kinai Front: Akechi Mitsuhide
Shikoku Front: Niwa Nagahide
Hokuriku Front: Shibata Katsuie
Kanto Front: Takigawa Kazumasu
Nobunaga's army had a firm rule, known as theIssen-giri (一銭斬り;lit.'Cutting people for a penny'), whereby all vassals, including ashigaru and lower-ranking ones, were to be put to death if they stole even a single penny. In those days, it was common practice for sengoku daimyō such as Takeda and Uesugi to allow their vassals to raid nearby villages to pillage them if they won a battle, fighting for the loot to be gained.
It was also common, after the battle was over, for traffickers to set up markets to sell the captured people. However, Nobunaga forbade the soldiers under his command from looting and violence against the people. On the contrary, food and other supplies were bought for a price.
Furthermore, he took a tough attitude towards roadside bandits who stood in the way of trade. As a result, after Nobunaga united Owari, security improved to the extent that merchants could take naps on the roadside. These actions enabled Nobunaga to gain the support of the people and move towards unifying the country. Strict military discipline was inherited by Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu, who recognized it as an important factor in gaining public support.[79]
Nobunaga is said to have used six armored ships in the Second Battle of Kizugawaguchi in 1578.[80]Nobunaga, who suffered a heavy blow at the First Battle of the Kizugawaguchi from ahōraku-hiya[h] of the MurakamiSuigun, the core of the Mori Suigun, ordered Kuki Yoshitaka to build iron-armoured ships to repel the Mori Suigun attempting to bring provisions and other supplies to the Osaka Hongan-ji.[82][83]
They are thought to have been large wooden ships,Atakebune, covered with iron plates, with cannons on the front and arrows and guns on the sides, with two or three tiers of turrets on the upper deck. However, as no actual ships have survived and historical documents are inadequately described, there are many theories about the appearance and structure of iron-armoured ships. Some believe that they were not actually iron-armoured ships, but simply European-style black ships, or that they may not have been completely covered with iron plates, but only important parts were covered with iron. It is also said that iron-armoured ships were intended to intimidate rather than attack, and could not move much themselves, and were more fortress-like ships floating on the sea.[80][82]
In Tamon'in Eishun'sTamon'in Diary, there are passages which state that the ship was "a ship of iron" and "prepared to prevent guns (bullets) from going through", and this is the only historical document that provides evidence that the ship was armoured with iron plates. Some argue that sinceTamon'in Diary is a primary historical source, its account should be trusted, but it is only hearsay and was not witnessed by Eishun himself. On the other hand, the Jesuit missionary Organtino, who actually observed the ships, wrote in his report that it resembled a Portuguese ship and was surprised that such a ship had been built in Japan. If they were similar to the Portuguese ships of the time (galleons), it is assumed that they would have been very different from Atakebune, a keelless riverboat. The ships were also said to be equipped with three cannons and numerous elaborate and large long guns.Shinchō Kōki (manuscript) mentions that "big guns" were powerful in naval battles, but does not say whether they were actually iron-armoured.[80][82]
Nobunaga initiated a period in Japanese art history known asFushimi, or theAzuchi-Momoyama period, in reference to the area south of Kyoto. He built extensive gardens and castles which were themselves great works of art. Azuchi Castle included a seven-storyTenshukaku, which included a treasury filled with gold and precious objects. Works of art included paintings on movable screens (byōbu), sliding doors (fusuma), and walls byKanō Eitoku.[17]: 380–82
Nobunaga promoted the tea ceremony. Not only that, he is said to have built trust with his subordinates by successfully using the system for political use of the tea ceremony, which Toyotomi Hideyoshi later namedOnchanoyu Goseido (御茶湯御政道,lit.'Tea Ceremony Politics').[63][84]He actively promoted the value of the tea ceremony in samurai society, giving it a value equal to the fiefdom and rank he received from his lord. He transformed the values of the samurai through the following three actions.
Collecting: He collected and monopolised famous tea utensils. In other words,Meibutsu-gari (名物狩り,lit.'specialty hunting').[i]
Presentation: He presented his own specialty tea utensils that he had acquired at a tea ceremony.
Bestowal: He gave specialty tea utensils to vassals who had made meritorious achievements.
Nobunaga held tea ceremonies with limited participants and showed his authority by displaying his tea utensils, making it known that the tea ceremony was a samurai ritual. He forbade his vassals to hold tea ceremonies, but allowed those who made special achievements to hold tea ceremonies by giving them tea utensils. The vassals then began to take pleasure in Nobunaga's bestowal of specialties and to feel great honor in being allowed to hold tea ceremonies. Thus, among the warriors, the specialty tea utensils and the holding of tea ceremonies became of special value, and they began to covet tea utensils more than the territory given to them by their lord.[85][86]
Nobunaga was famous for his great love ofsumo, and frequently held sumo tournaments at Jōraku-ji in Azuchi between 1570 and 1581, the year before his death.[87][88]In the beginning, the tournament attracted braggarts from all over Ōmi Province, but gradually it began to draw from Kyoto and other regions. The largest tournament was held in 1578 at Mount Azuchi, with 1,500 participants.[88][89]
The main reason for organising the tournament was, of course, that Nobunaga was a great lover of sumo. But there was also the practical advantage of selecting young men of good physique and martial prowess, and the aim was to demonstrate Nobunaga's authority by putting on a big show, while at the same time relieving popular discontent by providing entertainment.[88][89]
Regarding the relationship between Nobunaga and sumo, there is a theory that the Yumitorishiki (bow-twirling ceremony) and the format in which sumo wrestlers are divided into East and West and judged by agyōji (sumo referee) were born out of the sumo tournament organised by Nobunaga.[87][89] As for the theory that Nobunaga is the origin of the 'East-West' sumo ranking system, there are actually historical documents in Omi Hachiman City that support this relationship. In 1581, Nobunaga, who was enjoying a fire festival with his vassals dressed up in Nanban costumes, had them perform take-zumō (bamboo wrestling)[j]. He praised the two contestants who had fought to a draw, and as a reward, he gave the surnames Higashi (東,lit.'East') to Denzo, who entered the ring from the east, and Nishi (西,lit.'West') to Umejiro, who entered the ring from the west.
It is said thatrazor blades became popular in Japan when Nobunaga Oda used them to create a samurai hair style, sakayaki.[k] The razor blade is said to have arrived in Japan around 538, the year that Buddhism was introduced to Japan, and razor blades were also introduced as a Buddhist implement for monks to shave their heads.
Razor blades were expensive and also sacred Buddhist implements, so even afterwards it remained common to use woodentweezers for grooming hair and beards. Samurai warriors also used tweezers to remove hair, but it was painful, time-consuming, and caused the pores to fester. It is said that the rationalist Nobunaga therefore shaved sakayaki with a razor blade, which led to the use of razor blades among samurai.
Shaving the sakayaki became a fashionable hairstyle that townspeople began to imitate, and became established in the Edo period. It is said that this has made the use of razor blades commonplace for the general public.[90][91][92]
Nobunaga did not actively believe in any particulargod orBuddha himself; according to Jesuit scholar Luís Fróis he told people there was no afterlife but he did not deny that he was an adherent ofHokke-shū,[clarification needed] and it was common for him to pray for victory and to visit temples and shrines. He never denied or suppressed the beliefs of others for any reason, and was even willing to help and shelter them if they asked for help. Nobunaga rather respected them as long as they did not associate with the various daimyōs or meddle in politics like fixers, but rather devoted themselves to their main task as religious people. In fact, for temples and shrines that do not go beyond their main religious duties, he made donations, paid for repairs to facilities, and relieved them of their territories.[93][94]
It is sometimes said that Nobunaga hated Buddhism because of his wars withHongan-ji, his suppression of Ikkō-ikki, his fire attack against Mt. Hiei and his attacks on Mt. Kōya, but this appears to be a misconception. It is true that he showed no mercy, even to monks, but this was not because he hated Buddhism. There is a saying that if you kill a monk, you will be cursed for seven generations, but unlike most daimyōs of the time, Nobunaga simply did not have such a taboo. Nobunaga only fought Buddhist forces as thoroughly as he had fought other Sengoku Daimyōs, and while it is true that he killed thousands of monks and tens of thousands of believers, he never forbade their faith itself. Nobunaga would forgive them if they complied with his advice to surrender, but if they did not, he would send a large army to massacre them and try to suppress them through fear.[93][95]
TheIkkō-shū (Jodo Shinshu Honganji Order) was very powerful at the time. The Osaka Hongan-ji (later Ishiyama Hongan-ji) was an armed group comparable to the Sengoku Daimyō, controlling territory and employing as mercenaries theSaika-shū of Kii Province, who were skilled in the use of guns. The Ishiyama Hongan-ji War was a war that began when Nobunaga, who considered Osaka his future base, ordered the Osaka Honganji to withdraw from Osaka. Kennyo issued a proclamation to his followers to overthrow Nobunaga, and they rose up in anti-Nobunaga ranks. Honganji then laid siege to Nobunaga with Takeda, Asakura, Azai, Mōri and others. Ikkō-ikki were a nationwide trans-religious resistance movement against lords and rulers of the secular realm, organized by the Hongan-ji Order.
Nobunaga attempted to isolate the Osaka Hongan-ji by exterminating the Ikkō-ikki in various parts of the country. Nobunaga's massacre is generally criticized, but there is also the view that Nobunaga had no choice but to massacre them as a result of Hongan-ji Temple's request for thorough resistance from its followers. In the case of Mount Hiei and Mount Koya, they were attacked because they had joined the daimyōs who were hostile to Nobunaga or sheltered defeated soldiers.[94][95]
Nobunaga gave some liberty to theJesuits to preach Christianity and sheltered their activities in Japan. One reason for this decision was because the use of matchlocks, which were necessary for warfare, was impossible without the Nanban trade, and because the Nanban trade required Jesuit mediation and diplomacy with Portugal. Although domestic production of guns themselves had already begun, nitre for the gunpowder and lead for the bullets were rarely produced in Japan at the time, so the only way to secure large quantities was to obtain those brought in from overseas by Portuguese merchant ships. The Jesuits also actively backed Nobunaga because of his tolerance to their mission and they considered him to be the closest person to unifying the country, and so they could use his help to curb the Buddhist influence as a common rival.[68][58][96]
Luís Fróis described Nobunaga in hisHistory of Japan as "of medium height and lean build, with a thin moustache and a very clear voice". Regarding his height, inJesuit Japan Correspondence – Luís Fróis Letter of 1 June 1568, he also describes him as "tall and lean, with a very high voice".[97][98]His height is estimated to be 5 shaku 5 or 6 sun (166–169 centimetres or 5 ft 5 in – 5 ft 7 in) tall based on a life-size seated wooden statue of him left at Daitoku-ji and the armour he is said to have used.[99]
According to Fróis, he had great understanding and clear judgment, disdained gods, Buddha and other idols, and did not believe in any pagan divination. His sect was the Lotus sect, but he preached in high spirits that there is no creator of the universe, that the spirit is not immortal, and that nothing exists after death, and there are no awards or punishments in the afterlife.[97][98]
He was extremely fond of warfare, devoted to the practice of martial arts, and was coarse. He was arrogant but honourable, strict in righteousness and enjoyed the deeds of justice and mercy. When others insulted him, he did not hesitate to punish them, but in certain matters he showed amiability and mercy.[97][98]
He was also temperamental, though not greedy, and could be prone to temper tantrums. He was secretive in his decisions and extremely cunning in his strategies. He was magnanimous and patient, even when the fortunes of war seemed to be against him. He had a somewhat melancholy shadow, but when it came to difficult schemes, he was fearless, and people followed his orders in everything.[97][98]
He was seldom disciplined, rarely swayed by the advice of his vassals, and was extremely feared and respected by all. He despised all the daimyō of Japan and spoke to them condescendingly, as if they were his subordinate retainers, and the people obeyed him as if he were an absolute monarch. On the other hand, he also spoke cordially with a very lowly and despised servant.[97][98]
He did not drink, ate sparingly, did not sleep much and was an early riser. He liked his house to be clean and was meticulous in his instructions on various matters. When talking to people, he disliked long conversations and lengthy preliminaries. He particularly liked the famous vessels of the tea ceremony, good horses, swords and falconry. He also loved watching people perform sumo naked in front of him, regardless of status.[97]
Nobunaga's many great achievements were also thanks to the education of his father, Nobuhide. Originally, Nobuhide was only one of the three magistrates of Kiyosu, rather than the whole of Owari, but he gained so much power that he overpowered theShugodai who ruled Owari. Nobuhide was not only a brilliant military man, but was also a well-known cultural figure in Kyoto. However, he believed that doing the same thing as himself at the turn of the age would no longer work, did not give Nobunaga the same education as himself at all. Nobuhide let Nobunaga do only what he wanted to do and what he was good at. As a result, he had no complexes about anything or anyone.[100]
A letter left by Luis Frois states that in response to a letter from Takeda Shingen signedTendai no Zasu Shamon Shingen (天台座主沙門信玄,lit.'The head priest of the Tendai sect Monk Shingen'), Nobunaga signed backDairokuten no Maō Nobunaga (第六天魔王,lit.'Nobunaga the Demon King of the 6th Heaven'). Takeda Shingen cited Nobunaga's Fire Attack against Mount Hiei, the head temple of the Tendai sect, as the reason for his hostility to Nobunaga, and to emphasise this and gain support from Buddhist forces, he took the name of Tendai Zasu, indicating that he was the head of Enryaku-ji. In reality, however, Shingen was not a Tendai Zasu or even a believer in the Tendai sect, and it is said that Nobunaga may have referred to himself as the Demon King to mock Shingen's own choice of title.[98][57]
The young Nobunaga was famous for his bizarre outfit and eccentric behaviour, and people called himŌutsuke (大うつけ,lit.'great fool'). At that time, he was dressed in hisyukatabira[l] sleeves removed, halfhakama with a flint pouch and others hanging from it, his hair tied into a chasen-mage[m] with crimson or light green threads, a sword in a vermilion sheath, and all his attendants carried vermilion arms. He also devoured fruits andmochi standing up without caring about the public gaze in the streets, or walked in a dishevelled manner, leaning on others or hanging on their shoulders.[11][72]
Nobunaga had no particular pastimes, but practised horsemanship in the morning and evening, and from spring to summer he would go into the river to practice water drills. He also learnt archery from Ichikawa Daisuke, marksmanship from Hashimoto Ippa and military tactics from Hirata Sanmi. Also at that time, he watched a mock battle using bamboo spears and said that spears could not be used if they were too short, so he had all his spears replaced with longer ones of 3 ken (5.4 metres or 18 ft) or 3 and a half ken (6.3 metres or 21 ft).[11][72]
At the funeral of his father Nobuhide, his younger brother Nobuyuki (Nobukatsu) wore a formalkataginu and long hakama and burnt incense according to etiquette, while Nobunaga came without long hakama, with his hair tied in a chasen-mage,[m] atachi sword and awakizashi with a long handle wrapped in straw rope. He then grabbed some powdered incense, threw it at the tablets and walked away.[72]
At a meeting between Nobunaga and his father-in-law, Saito Dōsan, Dōsan sneaked a peek to determine what kind of man his son-in-law was before they actually met. Then Nobunaga appeared with his hair tied up in a chasen-mage[m] with a light green flat cord, wearing a yukatabira[l] with one sleeve off, a tachi sword and wakizashi with gold and silver flakes pasted on the sheath and the long handle wrapped in straw rope, a thicktaro stem rope as an arm band, seven or eight flint pouches andgourds hanging around his waist like monkey trainers, and a half hakama made of four pieces of tiger and leopard leather. According toRojin Zatsuwa [ja], a compilation of stories by local elders, he also had a large picture of a penis dyed on the back of his yukatabira.[l] On the other hand, he was accompanied by a large contingent of a peculiarly organized force of 500 long spearmen and 500 archers andmatchlock troops. Dōsan went to the meeting place in his regular clothes, thinking that he would not need formal attire if he were to meet such a fool, but Nobunaga changed back into hishaori and long hakama, and for the first time in his life, he appeared in formal attire with his hair neatly folded in futatsu-ori.[n] On the way home, Dōsan's retainers laughed at him, saying, "Nobunaga was a fool after all", but Dōsan replied, "That is why I am frustrated. My children will be under the command of that fool in the future", he said with a bitter look on his face.[101][102][66]
Nowadays Oda Nobunaga is one of Japan's most popular historical figures. Despite his brutal image, Nobunaga is widely recognised for his appeal as an innovator who more than compensated for his shortcomings.[103][51] However, the image of Nobunaga has changed significantly during the Edo period, from the Meiji to the earlyShōwa era, and sinceWorld War II.[104]
Oda Nobunaga's reputation in the Edo period was rather negative overall. The biggest hero of the time was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the founder of the Edo Shogunate, but he had a surprisingly low public profile, as he was deified and could not be easily treated in popular culture. The most popular figure among the common people was Hideyoshi, who rose from peasant to ruler of the country.[103][104]
In the late Edo period, he finally received high praise inRai San'yō'sNihon Gaishi (1827). However, San'yō evaluated Nobunaga from the perspective of imperial ideology more than he evaluated his military strategies. San'yō interpreted Nobunaga's project to unify the whole country as being in the interests of the Emperor.[103]
In theMeiji era, Nobunaga was still not highly regarded. This changed in theTaishō era when the journalistTokutomi Sohō took up Nobunaga's innovations and gave him high praise for his continuous firing of guns and the abolition of customs checkpoints. However, what Sohō considered most important was still Nobunaga as a kinnoka (imperialist) who ended the shogunate government that lasted from Kamakura to Muromachi and emphasized the imperial court. With militarism on the rise, academism also encouraged the image of Nobunaga as an innovator and loyalist.[105]
On the other hand, the General Staff of the formerImperial Japanese Army studied the battles of Okehazama and Nagashino, and highly evaluated Nobunaga as a tactician.[o][106][107]
However, after the Second World War, as a result of the elimination of the imperialist view of history, it came to be thought that Nobunaga should be seen simply as a military commander and a politician. This is because the research style had changed from one based on war tales, such asHoan Shinchō Ki, to one based on ancient documents. Gradually, Nobunaga's progressive nature began to be discussed and his image as the "favourite of the times" took root. As a result, the pre-war image of Nobunaga as an imperialist disappeared and a new image of Nobunaga as a revolutionary who destroyed the old order and challenged established authority emerged. However, the latest research, perhaps as a reaction to this, has shown a marked tendency to believe that Nobunaga did not uproot the existing system but came to terms with vested interests and promoted gradual reforms, and some assess that he was in fact a conservative daimyō.[51][105][108]
In recent years, Nobunaga appears frequently in fiction and continues to be portrayed in many different anime, manga, video games, and cinematic films, very often wearing a Western-style mustache and a red European cape allegedly gifted to him. However, it was after World War II that Oda Nobunaga became popular.[105][109]
Nobunaga had previously appeared as Toyotomi Hideyoshi's lord in variousTaikōki in which Hideyoshi played a leading role, such asEhon Taikōki published in the Edo period andYoshikawa Eiji's historical novelShinsho Taikōki, written during World War II, but in short he was a supporting character.[103]
Nobunaga was often portrayed as a tyrant in variations of theTaikōki, where his lack of virtue and narrow-mindedness were often emphasised, although his abilities were appreciated.[110] An exception is Eiji Yoshikawa'sTaikōki, in which he was a firm but benevolent lord.
The post-War image of Nobunaga began with writerSakaguchi Ango'sOda Nobunaga. He described Nobunaga as a rationalist to the bone.[105]
Nobunaga first gained popularity in Japan with the hit filmFū-unji: Oda Nobunaga (1959), an adaptation of the novelOda Nobunaga (1955–60) by historical novelistYamaoka Sōhachi.[111]
The popularity of Nobunaga was determined by the success ofShiba Ryōtarō's novelKunitori Monogatari (1963–1966).[105] Shiba positioned Nobunaga as a revolutionary with a clear will, a rarity in Japanese history, and established an image of Nobunaga in which light and shadow coexisted, not only evaluating his innovativeness but also criticising his brutality.[105]
However, he was not yet absolutely popular at the start of the serialisation and was a double starring with Akechi Mitsuhide.[111] On the contrary, the original protagonist was his father-in-law, Saito Dōsan, and Nobunaga was not planned to appear. However, due to its popularity, Shiba was not allowed to finish the series and had no choice but to bring out Nobunaga and make it a two-part series.[111]
In 1973, aTaiga drama based on this story was made.[111] After that, many Taiga dramas were made with him as the main character.
Tsuji Kunio's novelThe Signore: Shogun of the Warring States (安土往還記, 1968), in the form of a letter by the crew of a ship carrying missionaries to Japan, won the Ministry of Education's Art Encouragement Prize for New Artists.
Nobunaga is not the protagonist inKurosawa Akira's filmKagemusha (1980), but he is the originator of the image of him in current fictional works, wearing a mustache, a cloak and western armour and drinking red wine.[112][113][p]
Mayumura Taku'sSF novelToki no Tabibito: Time Stranger (1977–1978) is the originator of the plot in which a modern man travels back in time to the Sengoku period and meets Oda Nobunaga, and was made into an anime in 1986.[116]
His rise is chronicled in the Netflix docufiction seriesThe Age of the Samurai, the Bloody Origins of Japan released in 2021 and then inKeishi Ōtomo's filmThe Legend and Butterfly released in 2023.
The animeYōtōden (1987–1988) was the forerunner of the type of work in which the 'Demon King' Nobunaga stands in the way of the protagonists.[117]From this anime onwards, more and more films portrayed him not just as a villain or a brutal figure, but literally as a demonic being. He is portrayed as evil or megalomaniacal in some anime and manga series includingSamurai Deeper Kyo andFlame of Recca.
Yamada Masaki's novelŌka Ninpōchō: Basilisk Shinshō (2015) and its anime and mangaBasilisk: Ōka Ninpōchō, based onYamada Futaro's novelThe Kouga Ninja Scrolls and its anime and mangaBasilisk, portray Nobunaga as a literal demon in addition to a power-mad warlord.
In video games, the branding of Nobunaga began in the 1980s withKoei'sNobunaga's Ambition series.[118]And it was not until the 21st century that Nobunaga played the role of the Demon King in the video game world, starting withCapcom'sOnimusha (2001) andSengoku Basara (2005) and Koei'sSamurai Warriors (2004).[119][120][121] TheSamurai Warriors design for Nobunaga is also seen inPokémon Conquest (2012), known in Japan asPokémon + Nobunaga's Ambition[122]
While many works portray Nobunaga's character as a cruel monarch or demonic in nature, there are just as many works that portray him in a positive or neutral light. This is particularly true of Japanese live-action films and TV dramas.
Nobunaga has been portrayed numerous times in a more neutral or historical framework, particularly in thetaiga drama series produced and broadcast by NHK in Japan. The filmGoemon portrays him as a saintly mentor ofIshikawa Goemon.
Nobunaga has also been portrayed in fiction, such as when the figure of Nobunaga influences a story or inspires a characterization. InJames Clavell's novelShōgun, the character Goroda is apastiche of Nobunaga. In the filmSengoku Jieitai 1549, Nobunaga is killed by time-travelers.Nobunaga also appears as a major character in theerogeSengoku Rance and is a playable character inPokémon Conquest, with his partnerPokémon beingHydreigon,Rayquaza andZekrom.[126]
Nobunaga Oda exists also in the lore of the mobile gameFate/Grand Order and the manga series KOHA-ACE, as a playable character under various depictions and oftentimes shown with a very brash and carefree personality.
There are also two other portraits, one in kamishimo and the other in sokutai, painted by Kanō Eitoku, one of the leading painters of theAzuchi–Momoyama period. A 2011 survey revealed that the kamishimo used for the memorial service had been redrawn from the original painting. The picture on the front is sober, but the first picture on the back remained in coloring is a gorgeous design with different colors on the left and right of thekosode, and an extra sword. Both ends of the mustache, which were sloppily lowered in the front painting, were raised on the reverse side, giving the face a dignified appearance. It is speculated that Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who came to power after Nobunaga's death, ordered the redrawing to make Nobunaga look weak.[128][129]
The wooden statue of Lord Oda Nobunaga, owned by Sōken-in of Daitoku-ji, is a seated statue of Nobunaga wearing ceremonial clothes and a sword, approximately 115 cm tall. It is said that this is one of the two wooden statues carved out of fragrant wood (agarwood) for the first anniversary of Nobunaga's death, and the other was placed in the coffin in place of Nobunaga's body, which could not be found. The ashes of the burned wooden statue were buried in place of Nobunaga's body in the Bodaiji built at Daitoku-ji.[130][131]
Along with Tokugawa Ieyasu, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Mitsukuni,a gold-painted statue of Nobunaga was constructed at the entrance of the Endoji Shopping Arcade inNagoya in 2013.[132] In 2019, it was subjected to vandalism as the statue was found without his left arm.[133]
Nobunaga first claimed that the Oda clan was descended from theFujiwara clan, and later claimed descent fromTaira no Sukemori of theTaira clan. According to the official genealogy of the Oda clan, after Taira no Sukemori was killed in theBattle of Dannoura in 1185,Taira no Chikazane, the son of Sukemori and a concubine, was entrusted to aShinto priest at aShinto Shrine in Otanosho in the Echizen province. This Chikazane became the founder of the Oda clan.[134][135][136]
According to modern theories, there is no evidence that the Oda clan was descended from the Taira clan, and there is a theory that they were actually descended from theInbe clan, who were Shinto priests in Otanosho. One theory as to why Nobunaga came to claim descent from the Taira clan is that he justified his own seizure of power by exploiting the belief at the time that theMinamoto and Taira clans were destined to alternate in power (源平交替思想,Genpei kōtai shisō). In other words, the idea was that the Minamoto clan, the shogun of theKamakura shogunate, theHōjō clan, descended from the Taira clan (Shikken of the Kamakura shogunate), the Ashikaga clan, descended from the Minamoto clan (shogun of the Ashikaga shogunate), and the Oda clan, descended from the Taira clan, were destined to seize power in that order.[134][135][136]
However, there are theories that question whether the people of that time really believed in this idea,[136] and whether the Hojo clan was really descended from the Taira clan.[137][138][139]
Nobunaga was the eldest legitimate son of Oda Nobuhide, a minor warlord from Owari Province, andTsuchida Gozen, who was also the mother to three of his brothers (Nobuyuki,Nobukane, andHidetaka) and two of his sisters (Oinu and Oichi).[citation needed]
Nobunaga married Nōhime, the daughter of Saitō Dōsan, in a political marriage, but records indicate that they had no children.It was his concubines, including Lady Ikoma (commonly known as Kitsuno), Lady Saka, Kyōun'in (Onabe no kata), Yōkan'in, Jitoku'in, Lady Hijikata, and Myōkō'in gave birth to his children.Kitsuno and Onabe's became Nobunaga's concubines after her husband was killed in battle, and Onabe had two sons with her former husband.Kitsuno bore Nobunaga's heir Nobutada and his second son Nobukatsu, and Saka bore his third sonNobutaka.After the death of Nobunaga and Nobutada, Nobukatsu and Nobutaka fought for Nobunaga's succession, and finally Nobutada's sonHidenobu (Sanpōshi) succeeded the head of the Oda clan.
Lawful Wife:Sagiyama-dono (also known as Nōhime or Kichō), daughter of Saitō Dōsan
Concubines:
Lady Ikoma (also known as Kitsuno), daughter of Ikoma Iemune, mother of Oda Nobutada, Nobukatsu and Toku-hime
Lady Saka, mother of Oda Nobutaka
Kyōun'in (Onabe no Kata), daughter of Takahata Genjūro, mother of Oda Nobuyoshi, Nobutaka and Ofuri, she acted practically as Nobunaga's lawful wife after he moved his base to Azuchi Castle.
Yokan'in, mother of Fuyu-hime, Hashiba Hidekatsu and Oda Nobuhide
Shunyomyōchō-daishi, mother of Ei-hime
Jitoku'in, relative of Takigawa Kazumasa, nanny of Oda Nobutada, birth mother of San-no-maru-dono
Lady Hijikata, daughter of Hijikata Katsuhisa, mother of Oda Nobusada
Akoko no kata, daughter of Sanjonishi Saneki
Myōkyō'in, sister of Ban Naomasa, mother of Nobumasa Oda
One of Nobunaga's younger sisters, Oichi, gave birth to three daughters. These three nieces of Nobunaga became involved with important historical figures.Chacha (also known as Lady Yodo), the eldest, became the mistress of Toyotomi Hideyoshi.O-Hatsu marriedKyōgoku Takatsugu. The youngest,O-go, married the son of Tokugawa Ieyasu,Tokugawa Hidetada (the second shogun of theTokugawa shogunate). O-go's daughterSenhime married her cousin Toyotomi Hideyori, Lady Yodo's son.[citation needed]
Nobunaga's nephew wasTsuda Nobuzumi, the son of Nobuyuki. Nobuzumi married Akechi Mitsuhide's daughter and was killed after the Honnō-ji coup by Nobunaga's third son, Nobutaka, who suspected him of being involved in the plot.[citation needed]
Nobunari Oda, a retired figure skater, claims to be a 17th-generation direct descendant of Nobunaga,[140][141] and the ex-monk celebrity Mudō Oda also claims descent from the Sengoku period warlord, but their claims have not been verified.[citation needed]
Famous sword by sword smith 'Kunishige'. A Japanese national treasure. 'Heshikiri' means press and cut and is said to derive from an anecdote about Nobunaga pressing and cutting a chabozu who had been rude to him, including the entire cupboard in which he hid.[143]
Yoshimoto Samonji
A trophy from the Battle of Okehazama, which belonged to Imagawa Yoshimoto when he was killed. This sword was owned by Nobunaga, then passed to Hideyoshi and Ieyasu, and was called 'the famous sword that ruled the whole country'.
Yagen Tōshirō
Matsunaga Hisahide donated it to Oda Nobunaga. It is said that it was burned down in the Honnō-ji Incident.
Kotegiri means "kote cutter". In this casekote is a contraction ofyugote (弓籠手), thearm guard used by a samurai archer. This name comes from an episode in whichAsakura Ujikage cut an opposing samurai'syugote in theBattle of Toji inKyoto. Oda Nobunaga gained possession of this sword and had it shortened to its present length.
^In recent years,Miyoshi Nagayoshi, who conquered the Kinai region before Nobunaga, is often referred to as the firstTenka-bito (ruler).[6]
^There is no doubt that Nobunaga was saddened by his death. He later built Seishū-ji (Masahide Temple) in Ogi Village, which was Masahide's territory, to mourn him.
^ Nobunaga brought Sakai and other areas under his control and obtained almost exclusive access to lead, the raw material for bullets, and nitre, the raw material for gunpowder, which were rarely produced domestically and could only be imported from overseas through theNanban trade.
^ They don't necessarily reflect their actual personalities.[43]
^Until then, stone walls were used almost exclusively for temples.
^Tsunagi-jiro refers to a branch castle that connects castles.
^In particular, matchlock artillery units by ashigaru, which became the new mainstay of the battle, were stationed in the castle town and military exercises were held regularly. Since guns at that time had no rifling, accuracy was easily affected by the skill of the shooter. Therefore, it was necessary to train the shooters to become proficient.[55]
^hōraku-hiya is a hand grenade-like weapon made of pottery filled with gunpowder. It is thrown after igniting the fuse.[81]
^ Meibutsu-gari refers to the act by which Nobunaga, in the process of expanding his territory one after another, forced those whom he subjugated to offer tea utensils of high value as arts and crafts, or half-forcibly purchased them from them.
^A contest of strength in which the two ends of a bamboo are held and twisted against each other in opposite directions.
^Sakayaki is a half-moon shaved area from the front to the crown of the head in medieval male hairstyles. It is believed to have originated when samurai shaved their heads to prevent the inside of their helmets from getting hot and humid on the battlefield, leaving hair to fasten the eboshi worn on official occasions with hairpins. Initially they shaved their sakayaki only during warfare, but when warfare became the norm during the Sengoku period, they shaved their hair for longer periods than they let it grow. During the Edo period, the custom was established that all samurai and commoners, with the exception of court nobles, always shaved their sakayaki.
^abcA hairstyle in which the hair is bound into a stick shape and the tip looks like a brush tip.
^A hairstyle in which the hair is bound at the back and folded upwards to form a double-folded mage.
^However, the General Staff did not refer to the highly regardedShinchō Kōki as a historical document, but toHoan Shinchō ki, a later war tales based on it, and their theory has been shown to be erroneous by subsequent research findings.
^Nobunaga owned a cloak, but there is no confirmed record of him drinking wine, and Western armour was not brought to Japan until 1588, after Nobunaga's death, according to official records.[113][114][115]
^Iseki, Eiji (17 November 2022)."「天下人」三好長慶と堺商人の特別な関係 初公開の書状で見えたのは" [The special relationship between the 'Tenkabito' Miyoshi Nagayoshi and the Sakai merchants, as revealed in a letter published for the first time.].Asahi Shimbun (in Japanese). Tokyo. Retrieved6 August 2023.
^安土桃山時代 (in Japanese). Kotobank. Archived fromthe original on 25 December 2023. Retrieved9 March 2024.
^Jansen, Marius (2000).The Making of Modern Japan, p. 11.
^abChaplin, Danny (2018).Sengoku Jidai. Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Ieyasu : three unifiers of Japan. [United States?]. pp. 55–63.ISBN978-1-9834-5020-4.OCLC1111714915.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^abŌta, Gyūichi (2011).The chronicle of Lord Nobunaga. J. S. A. Elisonas, Jeroen Pieter Lamers. Leiden: Brill. pp. 64–66.ISBN978-90-04-20456-0.OCLC743693801.
^abcMizuno, Seishiro (28 September 2012)."信長が育った那古野城、泳いだ庄内川" [Nakono Castle, where Nobunaga grew up, and the Shonai River, where he swam].Chunichi Shimbun (in Japanese). Tokyo. Archived fromthe original on 23 January 2025. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcTurnbull, Stephen (1987).Battles of the Samurai. Arms and Armour Press. p. 37.ISBN978-0-85368-826-6.
^Okanoya, Shigezane (2007) [based on 1943 edition by Iwanami Shoten, Japan; first edition 1871]. "Tale 3 – His Extraordinary Appearance". In Dykstra, Andrew; Dykstra, Yoshiko (eds.).Meishōgenkōroku [Shogun and Samurai – Tales of Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Ieyasu](PDF). translated by Andrew and Yoshiko Dykstra.hdl:10125/309. Retrieved21 July 2010.
^Chaplin, Danny (2018).Sengoku Jidai. Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Ieyasu: three unifiers of Japan. Scotts Valley, California: CreateSpace. pp. 55–63.ISBN978-1-9834-5020-4.OCLC1111714915.
^Ōta, Gyūichi (2011).The chronicle of Lord Nobunaga. J. S. A. Elisonas, Jeroen Pieter Lamers. Leiden: Brill. p. 3.ISBN978-90-04-20456-0.OCLC743693801.
^Weston, Mark. "Oda Nobunaga: The Warrior Who United Half of Japan".Giants of Japan: The Lives of Japan's Greatest Men and Women. New York: Kodansha International, 2002. pp. 140–145.
^Atobe, Ban (11 June 2023)."信長の｢天才的戦術｣は旧日本陸軍のウソである...長篠の戦いで大敗した武田勢の評価が見直されているワケ敵陣に突入する戦法は｢正攻法｣だった" [Nobunaga's "genius tactics" is a lie of the former Japanese Army... The reason why the evaluation of the Takeda forces, which suffered a crushing defeat in the Battle of Nagashino, is being reviewed. The tactic of rushing into enemy lines was "regular tactics".].Nikkei Business (in Japanese).Nikkei Business Publications. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Atobe, Ban (20 June 2023)."教科書に書かれていない｢信長が長篠の戦いで武田勝頼に勝った本当の理由｣ 最新研究が明かす武田軍と織田軍の決定的な違い" [The Real Reason Nobunaga Defeated Takeda Katsuyori in the Battle of Nagashino Not Written in Textbooks. The Latest Research Reveals the Critical Difference between Takeda's Army and Oda's Army.].Nikkei Business (in Japanese).Nikkei Business Publications. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Osamu, Wakita (1982), "The Emergence of the State in Sixteenth-Century Japan: From Oda to Tokugawa",The Journal of Japanese Studies,8 (2):343–67,doi:10.2307/132343,JSTOR132343
^Hinago, Motoo (1986).Japanese Castles. Kodansha International Ltd. and Shibundo. pp. 17, 28,118–21.ISBN0870117661.
^Ōrui, N. and M. Toba (1935).Castles in Japan. Tokyo: Board of Tourist Industry & Japan Government Railways.
^McKelway, Matthew (2006). "The Azuchi Screens and Images of Castles".Capitalscapes Folding Screens and Political Imagination in Late Medieval Kyoto. University of Hawaii Press. p. 296.ISBN978-0824861773.
^Horie, Hiroki (10 January 2021)."明智光秀「敵は本能寺にあり!」とは言っていない?" [Didn't Mitsuhide Akechi say, "The enemy is at Honnoji!"?].Nikkan Caizo (in Japanese). Caizo. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^Ishikawa, Takuji (6 March 2021)."本能寺の変で信長が最後に発したひと言とは?" [Nobunaga's last words to Nyōbō at the Honnoji Incident].goetheweb.jp (in Japanese).Gentosha. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^Owada, Yasutsune (16 October 2018)."本能寺の変、死を覚悟した信長がとった最期の行動" [The Honnoji Incident, Nobunaga's last act after preparing to die].JBpress (in Japanese). Japan Business Press Co., Ltd. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^Berry, Mary Elizabeth (1982).Hideyoshi. Cambridge and London: The Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University. pp. 41–43.ISBN978-0-674-39026-3.
^Duiker, William J.; Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2006),World History, vol. II, Cengage Learning, pp. 463, 474,ISBN978-0-495-05054-4, attributed to C. Nakane and S. Oishi 1990 eds.,Tokugawa Japan Tokyo, p. 14. Hashiba is the family name that Toyotomi Hideyoshi used while he was a follower of Nobunaga. In Japanese:"織田がつき 羽柴がこねし 天下餅 座りしままに 食うは徳川". Variants exist.
^Kaku, Kozo."歴史の楽しみ方" [How to enjoy history.]."Comic Version Japanese History" Official Site (in Japanese). Poplar Publishing. Retrieved6 August 2023.
^abcdMitsuishi, Kosei (23 August 2019).""知られざる、偉人とお金のはなし" 第一回 織田信長" [The Unknown Story of a historical person and His Money" Part 1: Oda Nobunaga.].Nikkei BizGate (in Japanese).Nikkei, Inc. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abMizutani, Tetsuya."第5章 郷土の三英傑に学ぶ経営戦略 - 信長、「天下布武」のビジョンを示す -" [Chapter 5: Management Strategies Learned from the Three Local Great Masters - Nobunaga Shows His Vision of "Tenka Fubu"-].Fujitsu Family Association Tokai Branch (in Japanese).Fujitsu. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abHashiba, Akira (11 July 2020)."本能寺の変、キリシタンの史料から探る 新書「キリシタン教会と本能寺の変」" [Honnoji Incident, Explored through Christian Historical Documents New Book "The Christian Church and the Honnoji Incident".].Kosho Kojitsu (in Japanese).Asahi Shimbun. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Hashiba, Akira (21 July 2020)."光秀謀反の動機が見えた! 日本史最大の謎、信長暗殺の真相に迫る。" [The motive for Mitsuhide's rebellion is revealed! We will get to the bottom of the greatest mystery in Japanese history, the assassination of Nobunaga.].Kadobun (in Japanese).KADOKAWA. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcdOwada, Tetsuo (18 April 2023)."実は全国統一を考えていなかった? 最新研究が覆す「織田信長の実像」" [Wasn't he actually thinking about national unification? "Real image of Oda Nobunaga" overturned by the latest research.].Web Rekishi Kaido (in Japanese). PHP Institute, Inc. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcdKawai, Atsushi (3 January 2020)."天下統一を夢見た織田信長" [Oda Nobunaga, who dreamed of unifying the country] (in Japanese). Public Interest Incorporated Foundation, Nippon.com. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Matsunaga, Yoshinobu (6 November 2022)."「岐阜」に込めた信長の野望とは" [What is Nobunaga's ambition in "Gifu"?].Asahi Shimbun (in Japanese). Tokyo. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Ishikawa, Takuji (2 September 2019)."信長見聞録 天下人の実像 – 第九章 足利義昭" [Nobunaga Observations: The Realities of the Ruler of Japan – Chapter 9: Ashikaga Yoshiaki].goetheweb.jp (in Japanese).Gentosha. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcdefghiTonomura, Miki (15 July 2022)."織田信長を天下統一に導いた「連鎖するイノベーション」" [The chain of innovations that led Oda Nobunaga to unify the country].Nikkei BizGate (in Japanese).The Nikkei. Retrieved29 September 2023.
^abcWatanabe, Daimon (11 April 2021)."政策は今も昔も大きな課題。織田信長の革新的な政策の謎に迫る。" [Policy is a major issue now and in the past. We look at the mysteries of Oda Nobunaga's innovative policies.].Yahoo! News (in Japanese).Yahoo! Japan. Archived fromthe original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcAbe, Ryutaro (11 March 2022)."家康の旗 朝鮮出兵で疲弊した経済を再建、平和な時代を開く" [Ieyasu's Banner: Rebuilding the economy exhausted by the Korean invasion and opening an era of peace].Nikkei Business (in Japanese).Nikkei Business Publications. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcOwada, Tetsuo (24 May 2020)."織田信長（上） 旧弊に縛られない天才、独創的な施策や人事" [Oda Nobunaga (Part 1): A Genius Unbound by Old Ways, Creative Policies and Personnel Evaluation].Otonanswer (in Japanese). Media Vague. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Ishikawa, Takuji (17 March 2020)."信長見聞録 天下人の実像 – 第十五章 山中の猿" [Nobunaga Observations: The Realities of the Ruler of Japan – Chapter 15: Monkeys in the Mountains].goetheweb.jp (in Japanese).Gentosha. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^"安土城は何が画期的だったのか 研究者の間で続く「争論」とは" [120 houses burned down by Nobunaga, who was What was groundbreaking about Azuchi Castle? What is the continuing contentious debate among researchers?.].Kyoto Shimbun (in Japanese). Kyoto. 3 April 2021. Retrieved29 September 2023.
^abMatsumoto, Haruhito (5 October 2017)."信長、統一への戦いを支えた新金融改革" [Battle of Okehazama: What were "Nobunaga's five reasons for victory"? Is the surprise attack a lie? Introducing the latest Japanese history.].Nikkei BizGate (in Japanese).Nikkei, Inc. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Hashiyama, Eiji (June 2017)."第50話 織田信長（1534–1582年）" [Episode 50: Oda Nobunaga (1534–1582).] (in Japanese). Kansai-Osaka 21st Century Association. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^"千利休が切腹させられたのはなぜ? 政治利用された「茶の湯」と謎の処刑理由" [How much do you know about Toyotomi Hideyoshi? Six petit backstories about warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi that are not depicted in dramas].excite news (in Japanese). Excite Japan. 14 October 2020. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcdIshikawa, Takuji (2 April 2019)."信長見聞録 天下人の実像 – 第四章 長槍隊" [Nobunaga Observations: The Realities of the Ruler of Japan – Chapter 4: Long Spear Corps].goetheweb.jp (in Japanese).Gentosha. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^"戦国時代に活躍した、国友の鉄砲" [Kunitomo guns, active during the Sengoku period.].Nippon Tabi Magazine (in Japanese). Pressman Union. 17 April 2019. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcAbe, Ryutaro (18 March 2022)."信長と鉄砲 天下統一の背景に南蛮貿易と鉄砲伝来、父信秀の財力" [Nobunaga and Guns: The Nanban trade, the introduction of guns, and his father Nobuhide's wealth as a backdrop to the unification of the country.].Nikkei Business (in Japanese).Nikkei Business Publications. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Mizuno, Seishiro (1 December 2012)."初めて鉄砲連射を行った村木砦の戦い" [The Battle of Muraki Fort, where guns were fired in rapid succession for the first time].Chunichi Shimbun (in Japanese). Tokyo. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^"番組情報: NHKスペシャル 戦国 激動の世界と日本 （1）「秘められた征服計画」" [Program Info: NHK Special Sengoku: The Warring States: Japan and the World in Turmoil (1) "The Hidden Plan of Conquest].TVでた蔵（TVDataZoo） (in Japanese).WireAction Inc. 24 January 2021. Archived fromthe original on 10 August 2023. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcdHamada, Koichiro (19 July 2023)."魔王?暴君?「戦国のカリスマ」織田信長が人々を魅了した納得の理由" [Demon king? Tyrant? Oda Nobunaga, the 'charisma of Sengoku', fascinated people for a reason.].JBpress (in Japanese). Japan Business Press Co., Ltd. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Hongo, Kazuto (5 February 2023)."信長でも秀吉でも家康でもない…東大教授が｢戦国時代で最も優秀な戦術家｣と断言する武将の名前" [Not Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, or Ieyasu...The name of a military commander declared by a University of Tokyo professor to be the best tactician of the Sengoku period].Nikkei Business (in Japanese).Nikkei Business Publications. Retrieved22 September 2023.
^Owada, Tetsuo (29 May 2017).""単身赴任"の部下に激怒した信長が焼き払った120軒" [120 houses burned down by Nobunaga, who was furious with his subordinate for "living apart from their family".].Mainichi Shimbun (in Japanese). Tokyo. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^"家康支えた「徳川四天王」とは? 戦国大名は「家臣」を統率し、「女性」は自分の意思で動いた" [Who were the "Four Heavenly Kings of Tokugawa" who supported Ieyasu? Sengoku-Daimyō led the "vassals" and "women" acted on their own will.].Aera (in Japanese). The Asahi Shimbun Company. 29 January 2023. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Owada, Tetsuo (14 June 2020)."織田信長（下）唯我独尊が招いた相次いだ謀反... 久秀、村重、そして光秀" [Nobunaga Oda (Part 2): A Series of Rebellions Caused by Self-Respect... Hisahide, Murashige, and Mitsuhide].Otonanswer (in Japanese). Media Vague. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Owada, Tetsuo (25 October 2020)."前田利家 武勇と仁愛を兼備、秀吉を支えた「槍の又左」" [Maeda Toshiie – The "Mataza of the Spear" Who Supported Hideyoshi with His Combination of Bravery and Humanity].Otonanswer (in Japanese). Media Vague. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Watanabe, Daimon (4 December 2021)."パワハラどころじゃない!織田信長が怒り狂って人を殺した話2選+番外編" [That's more than power harassment! Two stories about Nobunaga Oda who killed people in a fit of rage + extra stories.].Yahoo! News (in Japanese).Yahoo! Japan. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcWatanabe, Daimon (22 February 2023)."織田信長が大坂本願寺との戦いで用いた鉄甲船は、本当に鉄の装甲で覆われていたのか" [Were the iron-armoured ships used by Oda Nobunaga in his battles with Osaka Honganji really covered with iron armour?].Yahoo! News (in Japanese).Yahoo! Japan. Retrieved24 August 2020.
^"信長考案の鉄甲船! 毛利・村上水軍を破ったのは鉄に覆われた巨大船?" [Nobunaga's iron-armoured ship! The giant iron-clad ships that defeated the Mori and Murakami navies?].Busho Japan (in Japanese). Tokyosha. 29 September 2022. Retrieved24 August 2020.
^abcWatanabe, Daimon (28 January 2021)."織田信長が大坂本願寺攻めで用いた九鬼水軍の鉄甲船とはどんな船なのか" [What kind of ironclad ships were used by the Kuki navy in Oda Nobunaga's attack on the Osaka Honganji temple?].Yahoo! News (in Japanese).Yahoo! Japan. Retrieved24 August 2020.
^"第一次木津川口の戦いで村上水軍にフルボッコ! 焙烙火矢の恐怖" [In the 1st Battle of Kizukawaguchi, the Murakami navy is completely beaten!Fear of Hōroku Biya].Busho Japan (in Japanese). Tokyosha. 16 May 2020. Retrieved24 August 2020.
^Hashiba, Akira (10 August 2022)."茶道を人心掌握に活用した織田信長と荒稼ぎの千利休" [Oda Nobunaga, who used the tea ceremony to control people's minds, and Sen no Rikyū, who made a fortune.].Wedge Online (in Japanese). Wedge. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Ishikawa, Masashi (24 October 2022)."なぜ戦国時代のエリートらは茶道に熱狂したのか 政治に利用､武士としての評価にもつながった" [Why were the elites of the Sengoku period so enthusiastic about the tea ceremony? It was used for politics and was also evaluated as a samurai.].Toyo Keizai Online (in Japanese).Toyo Keizai. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Tanaka, Hiroshi (24 October 2022)."織田信長、天下統治の秘密は茶道具の価値変革...ナイキやゴディバ等の経営戦略の先駆け" [Oda Nobunaga's secret for ruling the country was the value transformation of tea utensils...Pioneer of management strategies for Nike, Godiva, etc.].Business Journal (in Japanese). Caizo. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^ab"相撲LOVEの織田信長がつくった? 安土に残る古文書でわかった、大相撲の「東西」の起源" [Created by Oda Nobunaga of Sumo LOVE? Ancient documents in Azuchi tell us about the origins of sumo wrestling's "East-West"].WARAKU web (in Japanese).Shogakukan. 22 June 2020. Retrieved24 August 2023.
^abcHashiba, Akira (28 January 2023)."日本史上No. 1の相撲好きは信長! 趣味が高じたイベントに参加者1500人" [Nobunaga is the No. 1 sumo enthusiast in Japanese history! 1500 people attended his event organised for his hobby].Busho Japan (in Japanese). Tokyosha. Retrieved24 August 2020.
^abcHashiba, Akira (25 April 2016)."一石四鳥だった!? 織田信長の相撲好き" [Killing four birds with one stone? Oda Nobunaga's love for sumo].BEST TiMES (in Japanese). Bestsellers. Retrieved24 August 2020.
^"理容室と美容室の違いを調べていたら、なんと織田信長に行き着いた!" [I was researching the difference between barbershops and beauty salons and to my surprise I came across Oda Nobunaga!].goetheweb.jp (in Japanese).Gentosha. 17 May 2013. Retrieved29 September 2023.
^"髭こそダンディズム? 織田信長も明治天皇も蓄えていた「髭」のイメージ、その歴史に迫る!" [Is a moustache a dandyism? The image and history of moustaches, which both Nobunaga Oda and Emperor Meiji wore!].WARAKU web (in Japanese).Shogakukan. 8 September 2020. Retrieved29 September 2023.
^"カミソリの歴史" [History of razors] (in Japanese). Kai Corporation. 8 September 2020. Retrieved29 September 2023.
^abIshikawa, Takuji (18 October 2020)."信長見聞録 天下人の実像 - 第二十一章 伊勢神宮" [Nobunaga Observations: The Realities of the Ruler of Japan – Chapter 20: Ise Grand Shrine].goetheweb.jp (in Japanese).Gentosha. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abWatanabe, Daimon (19 November 2021)."織田信長はなぜ比叡山を焼き討ちにしたのか?その当然すぎる理由" [Why did Nobunaga Oda burn down Mount Hiei? The all-too-obvious reason.].Yahoo! News (in Japanese).Yahoo! Japan. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abWatanabe, Daimon (14 July 2023)."先に戦いを仕掛けたのは大坂本願寺だった! 誤解が多い織田信長の10年戦争" [It was Osaka Honganji that launched the battle first! Oda Nobunaga's 10-year war, which is often misunderstood].Yahoo! News (in Japanese).Yahoo! Japan. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Abe, Ryutaro (25 March 2022)."信長と鉄砲 天下統一の背景に南蛮貿易と鉄砲伝来、父信秀の財力" [Nobunaga and Guns: The Nanban trade, the introduction of guns, and his father Nobuhide's wealth as a backdrop to the unification of the country.].Nikkei Business (in Japanese).Nikkei Business Publications. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcdefOhama, Tetsuya (31 March 2017)."学び!と歴史 <Vol. 109> 16世紀という時代 —開かれた世界への眼—（3）" [Learning! and History <Vol. 109> The 16th century – an open eye on the world (3)] (in Japanese). Nihon Bunkyou Shuppan. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcdefOhama, Tetsuya (March 2009)."大濱先生の読み解く歴史の世界「信長という男」" [Dr Ohama's reading of the world of history: 'A man called Nobunaga'.].Manabito (in Japanese). Nihon Bunkyou Shuppan. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^"一番身長が高かった戦国武将は誰?" [Who was the tallest warlord?].bestsellers.com (in Japanese). Bestsellers. 26 May 2017. Retrieved5 July 2023.
^Kaku, Kozo (1 May 2017)."織田信長を生んだ父･信秀の独創的な教育方針歴史に学ぶ乱世を生き抜く発想力の身に付け方" [The original educational policy of Oda Nobunaga's father, Nobuhide, which gave birth to him. Learning from history how to acquire the ability to think outside the box to survive in turbulent times.].Toyo Keizai Online (in Japanese).Toyo Keizai. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Mizuno, Seishiro (11 December 2012)."「であるか」、19歳の信長、斎藤道三を唸らせる" [I see, 19-year-old Nobunaga impresses Dosan Saito.].Chunichi Shimbun (in Japanese). Tokyo. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Ishikawa, Takuji (7 March 2019)."信長見聞録 天下人の実像 – 第二章 斎藤道三" [Nobunaga Observations: The Realities of the Ruler of Japan – Chapter 2: Saito Dosan].GOETHE (in Japanese).Gentosha. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcdGoza, Yuichi (9 May 2022)."あの織田信長が、江戸時代に「意外なほど不人気」だった理由 儒教的な考え方では「ダメな君主」" [This is why that Oda Nobunaga was "surprisingly unpopular" in the Edo period – A "bad monarch" in the Confucian view.].Gendai Business (in Japanese).Kodansha. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^abKurayama, Mitsuru (30 August 2017)."織田信長の評価、江戸時代は低かった!" [Oda Nobunaga's reputation was low in the Edo period!].BEST TiMES (in Japanese). Bestsellers. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^abcdefGoza, Yuichi (5 August 2022)."暴君・パッシング・革命児 信長再評価の450年" [Tyrant, Passerby, and Revolutionary: 450 Years of Reevaluating Nobunaga].Nikkei BizGate (in Japanese).Nikkei, Inc. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^Takeda, Kyoson (7 July 2015)."なぜ織田信長はわずか4千の兵で、3万の今川義元を破ったのか?桶狭間の合戦の謎" [Why was Oda Nobunaga able to defeat Yoshimoto Imagawa, who had 30,000 soldiers, with only 4,000 soldiers? Mystery of the Battle of Okehazama].Business Journal (in Japanese). Caizo. Retrieved29 September 2023.
^Takeda, Kyoson (7 July 2015)."梅雨が変えた戦国の歴史 「信長戦記」に新たな視点" [History of the Sengoku period changed by the rainy season: A new perspective on Nobunaga Senki].Nikkei Style (in Japanese).The Nikkei. Retrieved29 September 2023.
^"織田信長｢実は保守的｣カリスマ像が揺らぐ事情" [Oda Nobunaga 'actually conservative', a situation that has shaken his charismatic image.].Toyo Keizai Online (in Japanese).Toyo Keizai. 3 August 2022. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Kurayama, Mitsuru (1 September 2017)."戦後突然ヒーローに祭り上げられた信長" [Nobunaga suddenly feted as a hero after the war].BEST TiMES (in Japanese). Bestsellers. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^"江戸時代の学者には意外と不評だった織田信長。その低評価の理由と現代との違いを探る" [Oda Nobunaga was surprisingly unpopular with Edo period scholars. Explore the reasons for his low reputation and how it differs from the present day.].excite news (in Japanese). Excite Japan. 12 August 2022. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^abcdKurayama, Mitsuru (2 September 2017)."戦後浸透した、風雲児信長のイメージ" [The image of the adventurer Nobunaga that permeated the post-war period.].BEST TiMES (in Japanese). Bestsellers. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^Makino, Yoshiyuki (16 May 2021)."どの武将とも格が違うとわかる信長役の隆大介『影武者』" [Ryu Daisuke plays Nobunaga, a man who shows that he is different from any other military commander.'Kagemusha'.].Serai (in Japanese). Shogakukan. Retrieved23 February 2021.
^abWatanabe, Daimon (23 January 2023)."織田信長は黒のマントを身にまとい、ワインを堪能していたのか" [Did Nobunaga Oda wear a black cloak and enjoy his wine?].Yahoo! News (in Japanese).Yahoo! Japan. Archived fromthe original on 24 July 2023. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^"近世史を築いた三英傑とブドウ酒" [The three heroes who built modern history and grape wine.] (in Japanese).Kirin Company. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^Hashiyama, Eiji (2 July 2023)."設楽原の戦いでは「ブラウスにベスト姿」の家康 ヨーロッパかぶれには意外な狙いも" [Ieyasu 'in a blouse and waistcoat' at the Battle of Shitara Field – a surprising aim for his European zeal.].Daily Shincho (in Japanese).Shinchosha. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^"月代を剃った初期作から"魔王"なビジュアルの最新作まで 「信長の野望」シリーズに見る"織田信長"グラフィックの変遷" [The evolution of Oda Nobunaga's graphics in the Nobunaga's Ambition series, from the early sakayaki-shaved works to the latest with its 'demon king' visuals.].walkerplus (in Japanese).KADOKAWA. 5 March 2023. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^"「鬼武者〜Onimusha Tactics〜」がWii Uバーチャルコンソールに登場!" [Onimusha – Onimusha Tactics – is now available on the Wii U Virtual Console!].Game Watch (in Japanese). Impress. 25 February 2016. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^"魔王信長、冥府より蘇る——「戦国BASARA3」" [Demon King Nobunaga returns from the underworld – Devil Kings 3.].netolabo (in Japanese). ITmedia. 23 July 2010. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^Erik Christian Haugaard (1984).The Samurai's Tale. Houghton Mifflin Books. p. ix.Lord Oda Nobunaga – Lord Takeda Shingen's rival and enemy, well known for his merciless cruelty
^"信長の肖像画、竹の紙に描かれていた 文化庁調査で判明" [Nobunaga's Portrait Painted on Bamboo Paper – Agency for Cultural Affairs investigation reveals].Mainichi Shimbun (in Japanese). Tokyo. 5 May 2019. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^"派手ならば地味に変えよう信長像 秀吉が描き直し命令?" [If it's flashy, let's change it to sober, the image of Nobunaga Hideyoshi ordered to be redrawn?].Sankei Shimbun. Tokyo. 30 April 1961.Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved7 August 2023 – viaMSN.
^"派手だった信長像、秀吉が地味に?調査で判明" [Investigation reveals that Hideyoshi changed the flashy portrait of Nobunaga to a plain one].Yomiuri Shimbun (in Japanese). Tokyo. 6 June 2011. Archived fromthe original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^"あなたはどこまで知ってる? 戦国武将・豊臣秀吉のドラマでは描かれないプチ裏話6選" [How much do you know about Toyotomi Hideyoshi? Six petit backstories about warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi that are not depicted in dramas].excite news (in Japanese). Excite Japan. 14 October 2020. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^"織田信長の本当の墓はどこにある? 秀吉を「人非人」と罵った僧が弔った信長の骨" [Where is Oda Nobunaga's real grave? Nobunaga's bones buried by a monk who called Hideyoshi an "animal"].Daily Shincho (in Japanese).Shinchosha. 11 February 2022. Retrieved7 August 2023.
^Crystal Report Viewer. International Skating Union. Retrieved on 19 August 2007 from"Isufs". Archived fromthe original on 16 October 2005. Retrieved10 November 2011.
^Smile Wind. Nobunari Oda. Retrieved on 15 September 2007 from"Smile Wind". Archived fromthe original on 20 April 2006. Retrieved27 March 2006.
^ "Kanpo" No. 1590 "Investiture and Appointments" (in Japanese) 19 November 1917.
^Hongo, Kazuto; Takino, Miwako (26 May 2017)."「刀剣」ブームで注目! 「へし切長谷部」の持ち主織田信長のここが「やばい」" [The "Tōken" boom is drawing attention! Oda Nobunaga, the owner of "Heshikiri Hasebe," is "dangerous.].Diamond Online (in Japanese). Diamond Inc. Retrieved10 July 2023.
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