Ochre (/ˈoʊkər/OH-kər; from Ancient Greekὤχρα (ṓkhra), from ὠχρός (ōkhrós)'pale'),iron ochre, orocher inAmerican English, is a naturalclay earth pigment, a mixture offerric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand.[2] It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colours produced by this pigment, especially a light brownish-yellow.[3][4] A variant of ochre containing a large amount ofhematite, or dehydrated iron oxide, has a reddish tint known asred ochre (or, in some dialects,ruddle).
The word ochre also describes clays coloured with iron oxide derived during the extraction oftin andcopper.[5]
Ochre is a family of earth pigments, which includes yellow ochre, red ochre, purple ochre, sienna, and umber. The major ingredient of all the ochres isiron(III) oxide-hydroxide, known aslimonite, which gives them a yellow colour. A range of other minerals may also be included in the mixture:[6]: 134
Yellow ochre (Goldochre) pigment
Yellow ochre,FeO(OH)·nH 2O, is ahydratediron hydroxide (limonite) also calledgold ochre.
Red ochre,Fe 2O 3·nH 2O, takes its reddish colour from the mineralhematite, which is an iron oxide, reddish brown when hydrated.[7]
Purple ochre is a rare variant identical to red ochre chemically but of a different hue caused by different light diffraction properties associated with a greater average particle size.
Brown ochre,also FeO(OH), (goethite), is a partly hydrated iron oxide. Similarly,lepidocrocite — γ-FeO(OH),[8]: 236 a secondary mineral, a product of the oxidation of iron ore minerals, found in brown iron ores
Sienna contains both limonite and a small amount ofmanganese oxide (less than 5%), which makes it darker than ochre.
Umber pigments contain a larger proportion of manganese (5-20%), which makes them a dark brown.[9]
When natural sienna and umber pigments are heated, they are dehydrated and some of the limonite is transformed into hematite, giving them more reddish colours, called burnt sienna and burnt umber. Ochres arenon-toxic and can be used to make an oil paint that dries quickly and covers surfaces thoroughly. Modern ochre pigments often are made using synthetic iron oxide. Pigments which use natural ochre pigments indicate it with the name PY-43 (Pigment yellow 43) on the label, following theColour Index International system.
Limonite, amineraloid containing iron hydroxide, is the main ingredient of all the ochre pigments.
Hematite is a more reddish variety of iron oxide, and is the main ingredient of red ochre.
Pure manganese dioxide
Burnt and raw sienna. When limonite is roasted, it turns partially to the more reddish hematite and becomes red ochre or burnt sienna.
Raw umber; the higher manganese oxide content makes it darker
The clay hills ofRoussillon, Vaucluse, inProvence have been an important source of ochre pigment since the 18th century.
Three shades of ochre; naturally-occurring ochre is often a mix of minerals
A broad range of colours can be created with naturally-occurring or human-blended mixtures of these minerals.
Over recent decades, red ochre has played a pivotal role in discussions about the cognitive and cultural evolution of early modern humans during the African Middle Stone Age. In Africa, evidence for the processing and use of red ochre pigments has been dated by archaeologists to around 300,000 years ago, the climax of the practice coinciding broadly with the emergence ofHomo sapiens.[10][11] Evidence of ochre's use in Australia is more recent, dated to 50,000 years ago, while new research has uncovered evidence in Asia that is dated to 40,000 years ago.[12]
A re-examination of artifacts uncovered in 1908 atLe Moustier rock shelters in France has identifiedMousterian stone tools that were attached to grips made of ochre andbitumen. The grips were formulated with 55% groundgoethite ochre and 45% cooked liquid bitumen to create a mouldable putty that hardened into handles. Earlier excavations at Le Moustier prevent conclusive identification of thearchaeological culture and age, but the European Mousterian style of these tools suggests they are associated withNeanderthals during the lateMiddle Paleolithic, between 60,000 and 35,000 years before present. It is the earliest evidence of compound adhesive use in Europe.
Pieces of ochre engraved with abstract designs have been found at the site of theBlombos Cave in South Africa, dated to around 75,000 years ago.[13] "Mungo Man" (LM3) in Australia was buried sprinkled with red ochre around 40,000 years ago.[14] In Wales, thePaleolithic burial called theRed Lady of Paviland from its coating of red ochre has been dated to around 33,000 years before present. Paintings of animals made with red and yellow ochre pigments have been found in Paleolithic sites atPech Merle in France (ca. 25,000 years old), and thecave of Altamira in Spain (c. 16,500–15,000 BC). The cave ofLascaux has an image of a horse coloured with yellow ochre estimated to be 17,300 years old. Neolithic burials may have used red ochre pigments symbolically, either to represent a return to the earth or possibly as a form of ritual rebirth, in which the colour may symbolize blood and a hypothesizedGreat Goddess.[15]
The use of ochre is particularly intensive: it is not unusual to find a layer of the cave floor impregnated with a purplish red to a depth of eight inches. The size of these ochre deposits raises a problem not yet solved. The colouring is so intense that practically all the loose ground seems to consist of ochre. One can imagine that theAurignacians regularly painted their bodies red, dyed their animal skins, coated their weapons, and sprinkled the ground of their dwellings, and that a paste of ochre was used for decorative purposes in every phase of their domestic life. We must assume no less, if we are to account for the veritable mines of ochre on which some of them lived...
The AncientPicts were said to paint themselves "Iron Red" according to theGothic historianJordanes. Frequent references in Irish myth to "red men" (Gaelic: Fer Dearg) make it likely that such a practice was common to theCelts of theBritish Isles,bog iron being particularly abundant in themidlands of Ireland.
Ochre has uses other than as paint: "tribal peoples alive today . . . use either as a way to treat animal skins or else as an insect repellent, to staunch bleeding, or as protection from the sun. Ochre may have been the first medicament."[16]
Image of a horse coloured withyellow ochre (17,300 BC) fromLascaux cave, France.
Image of a human hand created with red ochre inPech Merle cave, France (Gravettian era, 25,000 BC).
Red ochre has been used as a colouring agent in Africa for over 200,000 years.[17] Women of theHimba ethnic group inNamibia use a mix of ochre and animal fat for body decoration, to achieve a reddish skin colour. The ochre mixture is also applied to their hair after braiding.[18] Men and women of theMaasai people in Kenya and Tanzania have also used ochre in the same way.
Ochre paintings in the Tomb of Nakht inAncient Egypt (15th century BC).
InAncient Egypt, yellow was associated with gold, which was considered to be eternal and indestructible. The skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold. The Egyptians used yellow ochre extensively in tomb painting, though occasionally they usedorpiment, which made a brilliant colour, but was highly toxic, since it was made witharsenic. In tomb paintings, men were always shown with brown faces, women with yellow ochre or gold faces.[19]
Red ochre in Ancient Egypt was used as a rouge, or lip gloss for women.[20] Ochre-coloured lines were also discovered on theUnfinished obelisk at the northern region of theAswanStone Quarry, marking work sites. Ochre clays were also usedmedicinally in Ancient Egypt: such use is described in theEbers Papyrus from Egypt, dating to about 1550 BC.
Pigments, particularly red ochre, were essential to grave rituals in ancient Phoenician society. They were more than just cosmetics; they also had important symbolic and ritualistic connotations. With its vivid color that was evocative of blood and energy, red ochre represented life, death, and rebirth. It also represented the desire for resurrection and the belief in an afterlife. In order to honor the deceased and get them ready for their passage to the afterlife, these pigments, particularly red ochre, were most likely applied to their body or other grave goods as part of the burial rites. “Phoenicians' love of red is highlighted by the great number of powders of this color found in the containers. The powders were probably used to give a hue to cheeks or to lips. Besides these uses as make-up powders, we can also assume a ritual use of ointments and powders containing cinnabar or ochre, applied to the face and the forehead during preparation rituals of the bodies. The discovery of red paint traces on bones and skulls suggests that these practices were common among the Phoenicians as for other populations.”[21][22] Greater-quality pigments and more intricate applications would typically indicate people of greater rank or particular significance within the community. Moreover, the presence and quality of pigments in a burial site may indicate the identity or social standing of the deceased. In addition to acting as offerings to the gods and protective symbols, pigments were employed to adorn grave goods including pottery, amulets, and other objects, so elevating the spiritual purity of the interment. The visual impact of red ochre could also have been intended to preserve the appearance of the body or make it presentable for mourning ceremonies, ensuring that the deceased was honored appropriately. This vivid color would enhance the overall visual and emotional impact of funerary displays. In essence, the use of red ochre and other pigments in Phoenician funerary contexts highlights their cultural and symbolic importance, reflecting deep-seated beliefs about death, the afterlife, and social hierarchy, thus providing a richer understanding of Phoenician customs and values.
Yellow ochre was often used for wall paintings inAncient Romanvillas and towns.
Ochre was the most commonly used pigment for painting walls in theancient Mediterranean world. InAncient Greece, red ochre was called μίλτος,míltos (henceMiltiades: "red-haired" or "ruddy"). Inancient Athens whenAssembly was called, a contingent of public slaves would sweep the open space of theAgora with ropes dipped inmiltos: those citizens that loitered there instead of moving to theAssembly area would risk having their clothes stained with the paint. This prevented them from wearing these clothes in public again, as failure to attend the Assembly incurred a fine.
In England, red ochre was also known as "raddle", "reddle", or "ruddle"[23] and was used to mark sheep and can also be used as a waxy waterproof coating on structures. The reddle was sold as a ready-made mixture to farmers and herders by travelling workers called reddlemen.[24]
InClassical antiquity, the finest red ochre came from a Greek colony on theBlack Sea where the modern city ofSinop inTurkey is located. It was carefully regulated, expensive and marked by a special seal, and this colour was called sealed Sinope. Later the Latin and Italian namesinopia was given to wide range of dark red ochre pigments.[25] Romantriumphators painted their faces red, perhaps to imitate the red-painted flesh of statues of the Gods.[26] The Romans used yellow ochre in their paintings to represent gold and skin tones, and as a background colour. It is found frequently in the murals ofPompeii.
Ochre pigments are plentiful across Australia, especially theWestern Desert,Kimberley andArnhem Land regions, and occur in many archaeological sites.[27] The practice of ochre painting has been prevalent amongAboriginal Australians for over 40,000 years. Pleistocene burials with red ochre date as early as 40,000 BP and ochre plays a role in expressing symbolic ideologies of the earliest arrivals to the continent.[28] Ochre has been used for millennia by Aboriginal people for body decoration,sun protection,[29] mortuary practices, cave painting, bark painting and other artwork, and the preservation of animal skins, among other uses. AtLake Mungo, in WesternNew South Wales, burial sites have been excavated and burial materials, including ochre-painted bones, have been dated to the arrival of people in Australia;[30] "Mungo Man" (LM3) was buried sprinkled with red ochre at least 30,000 BP, and possibly as early as 60,000 BP.[31]
Ochre was also widely used as medicine and, when ingested, some ochres have an antacid effect on the digestive system while others, which are rich in iron, can assist with lethargy and fatigue. Ochre is also often mixed with plant oils and animal fats to create other medicines.[32][33]
TheMāori people of New Zealand were found to be making extensive use of mineral ochre mixed with fish oil.[35] Ochre was the predominant colouring agent used by Maori, and was used to paint their largewaka taua (war canoe). Ochre prevented the drying out of the wood in canoes and the carvings of meeting houses; later missionaries estimated that it would last for 30 years. It was also roughly smeared over the face, especially by women, to keep off insects. Solid chunks of ochre were ground on a flat but rough surfaced rock to produce the powder.
InNewfoundland[36] its use is most often associated with theBeothuk, whose use of red ochre led them to be referred to as "Red Indians" by the first Europeans to Newfoundland.[37] The Beothuk may have also used yellow ochre to colour their hair.[38] It was also used by theMaritime Archaic as evidenced by its discovery in the graves of over 100 individuals during an archaeological excavation atPort au Choix. Its use was widespread at times in theEastern Woodlands cultural area of Canada and the US; theRed Ocher people complex refers to a specific archaeological period in the Woodlandsc. 1000–400 BC. CaliforniaNative Americans such as theTongva andChumash were also known to use red ochre as body paint.[39] Researchers diving into dark submerged caves on Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula have found evidence of an ambitious mining operation starting 12,000 years ago and lasting two millennia for red ochre.[40]
InNewfoundland, red ochre was the pigment of choice for use invernacular outbuildings and work buildings associated with thecod fishery. Deposits of ochre are found throughout Newfoundland, notably near Fortune Harbour and at Ochre Pit Cove. While earliest settlers may have used locally collected ochre, people were later able to purchase pre-ground ochre through local merchants, largely imported fromEngland.
The dry ingredient, ochre, was mixed with some type of liquid raw material to create a rough paint. The liquid material was usuallyseal oil orcod liver oil in Newfoundland and Labrador, whileScandinavian recipes sometimes called forlinseed oil. Red ochre paint was sometimes prepared months in advance and allowed to sit, and the smell of ochre paint being prepared is still remembered today.[41]
Variations in local recipes, shades of ore, and type of oil used resulted in regional variations in colour. Because of this, it is difficult to pinpoint an exact shade or hue of red that would be considered the traditional "fishing stage red". In theBonavista Bay area one man maintained that seal oil mixed with the ochre gave the sails a purer red colour, whilecod liver oil would give a "foxy" colour, browner in hue.[41]
During the Renaissance, yellow and red ochre pigments were widely used in painting panels and frescoes. The colours vary greatly from region to region, depending upon whether the local clay was richer in yellowish limonite or reddish hematite. The red earth fromPozzuoli near Naples was a salmon pink, while the pigment fromTuscany contained manganese, making it a darker reddish brown called terra di siena, orsienna earth.[42]
The 15th-century painterCennino Cennini described the uses of ochre pigments in his famous treatise on painting.
This pigment is found in the earth of mountains, where particular seams like sulphur are found. And there, where these seams are, sinopia, green earth and other types of pigment are found...And the abovementioned pigments running through this landscape looked as a scar on the face of a man or of a woman looks...I went in behind with my little knife, prospecting at the scar of this pigment; and in this way, I promise you, I never sampled a more lovely and perfect ochre pigment...And know that this ochre is a common pigment, particularly when working in fresco; that with other mixtures that, as i will explain to you, it is used for flesh colours, for drapery, for coloured mountains and buildings and hair and in general for many things.[43]
In early modern Malta, red ochre paint was commonly used on public buildings.[44]
The industrial process for making ochre pigment was developed by the French scientist Jean-Étienne Astier in the 1780s. He was fromRoussillon in theVaucluse department ofProvence, and he was fascinated by the cliffs of red and yellow clay in the region. He invented a process to make the pigment on a large scale. First the clay was extracted from open pits or mines. The raw clay contained about 10 to 20 percent ochre. Then he washed the clay to separate the grains of sand from the particles of ochre. The remaining mixture was then decanted in large basins, to further separate the ochre from the sand. The water was then drained, and the ochre was dried, cut into bricks, crushed, sifted, and then classified by colour and quality. The best quality was reserved for artists' pigments.[9]
InBritain, ochre was mined atBrixham,England. It became an important product for the British fishing industry, where it was combined with oil and used to coat sails to protect them from seawater, giving them a reddish colour. The ochre was boiled in great caldrons, together withtar,tallow andoak bark, the last ingredient giving the name of barking yards to the places where the hot mixture was painted on to the sails, which were then hung up to dry. In 1894, a theft case provided insights into the use of the pigment as afood adulterant insausage roll production whereby the accused apprentice was taught to soakbrown bread in red ochre,salt, andpepper to give the appearance ofbeef sausage for the filling.[45]
As noted above, the industrial process for making ochre pigment was developed by the French scientist Jean-Étienne Astier in the 1780s, using the ochre mines and quarries inRoussillon, Rustrel, or Gargas in theVaucluse department ofProvence, in France. Thanks to the process invented by Astier and refined by his successors, ochre pigments from Vaucluse were exported across Europe and around the world. It was not only used for artists paints and house paints; it also became an important ingredient for the early rubber industry.
Ochre from Vaucluse was an important French export until the mid-20th century, when major markets were lost due to theRussian Revolution and theSpanish Civil War. Ochre also began to face growing competition from newly synthetic pigment industry. The quarries in Roussillon, Rustrel, the Mines of Bruoux closed one by one. Today, the last quarry in activity is in Gargas (Vaucluse) and belongs to the Société des Ocres de France.
^Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (2002), Oxford University Press.
^The Random House College Dictionary, Revised Edition, (1980). "Any of a class of natural earths, mixtures of hydrated oxides of iron and various earthy materials, ranging in colour from pale yellow to orange and red, and used as pigments. A colour ranging from pale yellow to reddish-yellow."
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^Giulia Battiti Sorlini, "The Megalithic Temples of Malta", Por Anthony Bonanno,Archaeology and fertility cult in the ancient Mediterranean: papers presented at the First International Conference on Archaeology of the Ancient Mediterranean, University of Malta, 2–5 September 1985, p.145.
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