The protesters were forced out of Zuccotti Park on November 15, 2011. Protesters then turned their focus to occupying banks, corporate headquarters, board meetings, foreclosed homes, college and university campuses, and social media.
The original protest was called for byKalle Lasn,Micah White and others ofAdbusters, a Canadiananti-consumerist publication, who conceived of a September 17 occupation inLower Manhattan. The first such proposal appeared on the Adbusters website on February 2, 2011, under the title "A Million Man March on Wall Street".[10] Lasn registered theOccupyWallStreet.org web address on June 9.[11] The website redirected to Adbusters.org/Campaigns/OccupyWallStreet and Adbusters.org/OccupyWallStreet, but later became"Not Found".[12] In a blog post on July 13, 2011,[13] Adbusters proposed a peaceful occupation of Wall Street to protestcorporate influence on democracy, the lack of legal consequences for those who brought about the global crisis of monetary insolvency, and an increasing disparity in wealth.[14] The protest was promoted with an image featuring a dancer atop Wall Street's iconicCharging Bull statue.[15][16][17] In July,Justine Tunney registered OccupyWallSt.org which became the main online hub for the movement.[11]
The U.S. Day of Rage, a group that organized to protest "corporate influence [that] corrupts our political parties, our elections, and the institutions of government", also joined the movement.[18][19] The protest itself began on September 17; a Facebook page for the demonstrations began two days later on September 19 featuring a YouTube video of earlier events. By mid-October, Facebook listed 125 Occupy-related pages.[20]
The original location for the protest wasOne Chase Manhattan Plaza, withBowling Green Park (the site of the "Charging Bull") andZuccotti Park as alternate choices. Police discovered this before the protest began and fenced off two locations; but they left Zuccotti Park, the group's third choice, open. Since the park was private property, police could not legally force protesters to leave without being requested to do so by the property owner.[21][22] At a press conference held the same day the protests began, New York City mayorMichael Bloomberg explained, "people have a right to protest, and if they want to protest, we'll be happy to make sure they have locations to do it."[19]
The anthropologistDavid Graeber played a leading early role in the movement and in the coining of the slogan "We are the 99%".[23]
TheOccupy protesters'slogan "We are the 99%" referred to theincome disparity in the US andeconomic inequality in general, which were main issues for OWS. It derives from a "We the 99%" flyer calling for OWS's second General Assembly in August 2011. The variation "Weare the 99%" originated from aTumblr page of the same name.[31][32] Huffington Post reporter Paul Taylor said the slogan was "arguably the most successful slogan since 'Hell no, we won't go!'" of theVietnam War era, and that the vast majority of Americans saw the income gap as causing social friction.[31] The slogan was boosted by statistics which were confirmed by aCongressional Budget Office (CBO) report released in October 2011.[33] Writing in 2022, historianGary Gerstle says that the slogan "proved surprisingly appealing" in a nation that, during itsneoliberal high point, often denounced ideas ofclass warfare.[34]
A chart showing the disparity in income distribution in the United States.[35][36] Wealth inequality and income inequality have been central concerns among OWS protesters.[37][38][39]
Income inequality andwealth inequality were focal points of the Occupy Wall Street protests.[40][41][42] This focus by the movement was studied by Arindajit Dube and Ethan Kaplan of theUniversity of Massachusetts Amherst, who noted that "... Only after it became increasingly clear that the political process was unable to enact serious reforms to address the causes or consequences of the economic crisis did we see the emergence of the OWS movement."[43] Fear of dollar decline broadened interest inmonetary reform.[44]
Beginning on September 17, 2011, Zuccotti Park wasoccupied by protesters.[53]
Some protesters favored a fairly concrete set of national policy proposals.[54][55] One OWS group that favored specific demands created a document entitled the99 Percent Declaration,[56] but this was regarded as an attempt to "co-opt" the "Occupy" name,[57] and the document and group were rejected by the General Assemblies of Occupy Wall Street andOccupy Philadelphia.[57]
During the occupation in Liberty Square, a declaration was issued with a list of grievances. The declaration stated that the "grievances are not all-inclusive".[58][59]
The assembly was the main OWS decision-making body and used a modified consensus process, where participants attempted to reach consensus and then dropped to a 9/10 vote if consensus was not reached.
Assembly meetings involved OWS working groups and affinity groups, and were open to the public for both attendance and speaking.[60] The meetings lacked formal leadership. Participants commented upon committee proposals using a process called a "stack", which is a queue of speakers that anyone can join. New York used aprogressive stack, in which people frommarginalized groups are sometimes allowed to speak before people from dominant groups. Facilitators and "stack-keepers" urged speakers to "step forward, or step back" based on which group they belong to, meaning that women and minorities often moved to the front of the line, while white men often had to wait for a turn to speak.[61][62] In addition to the over 70 working groups,[63] the organizational structure also included "spokes councils", at which every working group could participate.[64]Dr. Ron Suarez and Margarete Koenen were the first two developer/designers for NYCGA.net - the website for internal organization, which used the Free Open Source, BuddyPress plugin for WordPress, so Groups would each have their own respective discussion forums, event calendars, and shared document system.[65] Thus, while the engineering was centralized, content control was decentralized, with Group members, on the ground, selecting the individuals who would be administrators and moderators for the respective Groups. Volunteers included one of the BuddyPress Lead Developers,Boone Gorges and people as far away as Australia. The complete source code was uploaded to GitHub and used by occupations in a number of other cities. One year later, the same website was used during Hurricane Sandy for "Occupy Sandy" to organize disaster relief volunteers.
The People's Library at Occupy Wall Street was started a few days after the protest when a pile of books was left in a cardboard box at Zuccotti Park. The books were passed around and organized, and as time passed, it received additional books and resources from readers, private citizens, authors and corporations.[66] As of November 2011 the library had 5,554 books cataloged inLibraryThing and its collection was described as including some rare or unique articles of historical interest.[67] According toAmerican Libraries, the library's collection had "thousands of circulating volumes", which included "holy books of every faith, books reflecting the entire political spectrum, and works for all ages on a huge range of topics."[66]
The library was largely destroyed during the November 15, 2011 raid and, in a court settlement, the City later agreed to pay $360,000 in compensation, including attorney fees.[68][69] Similarly, the City of New York has since begun settling cases with individual participants.[70]
There were already libraries in the encampments of Spain[71] and Greece. Following the example of the OWS People's Library, protesters throughout North America and Europe formed sister libraries at their encampments.[72]
Encampment at Zuccotti Park and "People's Library" with over 5,000 books, wi-fi internet, and a reference service, often staffed by professional librarians, procuring material through theinterlibrary loan system
Prior to being closed to overnight use and during the occupation of the space, somewhere between 100 and 200 people slept in Zuccotti Park. Initially tents were not allowed and protesters slept in sleeping bags or under blankets.[73] Meal service started at a total cost of about $1,000 per day. Many protesters used the bathrooms of nearby business establishments. Some supporters donated use of their bathrooms for showers and the sanitary needs of protesters.[74]
New York City requires a permit to use "amplified sound", including electric bullhorns. Since Occupy Wall Street did not have a permit, the protesters created the "human microphone" in which a speaker pauses while the nearby members of the audience repeat the phrase in unison.[75][73]
Zuccotti Park, cleared and cleaned on November 15, 2011
On October 13, New York City Mayor Bloomberg andBrookfield Properties announced that the park must be vacated for cleaning the following morning at 7 am.[76][77][78] The next morning the property owner postponed its cleaning effort.[77] Having prepared for a confrontation with the authorities to prevent the cleaning effort from proceeding, some protesters clashed with police in riot gear outside City Hall after it was canceled.[76]
Shortly after midnight on November 15, 2011, the New York City Police Department gave protesters notice from the park's owner to leave Zuccotti Park due to its purportedly unsanitary and hazardous conditions. The notice stated that they could return without sleeping bags, tarps or tents.[79][80] About an hour later, police in riot gear began removing protesters from the park, arresting some 200 people in the process, including a number of journalists.
On December 31, 2011, protesters started to re-occupy the park.[81] Police in riot gear started to clear out the park around 1:30 am. Sixty-eight people were arrested in connection with the event, including one accused by media of stabbing a police officer in the hand with a pair of scissors.[82]
When the Zuccotti Park encampment was closed, some former campers were allowed to sleep in local churches.[83] After the closure of the Zuccotti Park encampment, the movement turned its focus on occupying banks, corporate headquarters, board meetings, foreclosed homes, college and university campuses, and Wall Street itself. As of March 15, 2012, since its inception the Occupy Wall Street protests in New York City had cost the city an estimated $17 million in overtime fees to provide policing of protests and encampment inside Zuccotti Park.[84][85][86]
On March 17, 2012, Occupy Wall Street demonstrators attempted to mark the movement's six-month anniversary by reoccupying Zuccotti Park. Protesters were soon cleared away by police, who made over 70 arrests.[87][88] On March 24, hundreds of OWS protesters marched from Zuccotti Park toUnion Square in a demonstration against police violence.[89]
On September 17, 2012, protesters returned to Zuccotti Park to mark the first anniversary of the beginning of the occupation. Protesters blocked access to the New York Stock Exchange as well as other intersections in the area. This, along with several violations of Zuccotti Park rules, led police to surround groups of protesters, at times pulling protesters from the crowds to be arrested for blocking pedestrian traffic. There were 185 arrests across the city.[90][91][92][93]
Adbusters poster of Ms. Chelsea Elliott advertising the original protest
Occupy Wall Street activists disseminated their movement updates through a variety of mediums, including social media, print magazines, newspapers, film, radio and live stream. Like much of Occupy, many of these alternative media projects were collectively managed, while autonomous from the decision-making bodies of Occupy Wall Street.[94][95]
Arun Gupta, editor ofOccupied Wall Street Journal holding a copy of the first issue, standing inside Zuccotti Park
The Occupied Wall Street Journal (OWSJ) was a freenewspaper founded in October 2011 by independent journalists Arun Gupta, Jed Brandt and Michael Levitin.[96][97] The first issue had a total print run of 70,000 copies, along with an unspecified number in Spanish.[98] Its last article appeared in February 2012.
Occupier reading the special edition of Occupied Wall Street, with posters curated by Occuprint
TheOccuprint collective, founded by Jesse Goldstein andJosh MacPhee, formed through the curation of the fourth and special edition ofTheOccupied Wall Street Journal (OWSJ).[99][100] Afterwards, it continued to collect and publish images under theCreative Commons for non commercial use license, to spread the artwork throughout the movement.
The Occupy! Gazette was founded by editorsAstra Taylor,Keith Gessen ofn+1 and Sarah Leonard ofDissent Magazine. It published five issues from October 2011 to September 2012,[101] with a commemorative sixth issue published in May 2014, to support OWS activistCecily McMillan during the sentencing phase of her trial.[102][103]
Tidal: Occupy Theory, Occupy Strategy magazine was published twice a year, with its first release in December 2011, the fourth and final issue in March 2013. It consisted of long essays, poetry and art within thirty pages. Each issue had a circulation of 12,000 to 50,000.[104]
In Front and Center: Critical Voices in the 99% was a fully-online publication managed by an editorial collective of OWS participants. It featured critical essays and reflections from within OWS, aiming to put the voices, experiences and issues of oppressed and marginalized communities in the front and center of the Occupy movement. It is still available online.
OWS demonstrators complained of thefts of assorted items such as cell phones and laptops; thieves also stole $2,500 of donations that were stored in a makeshift kitchen.[105] In November, a man was arrested for breaking anEMT's leg.[106]
After several weeks of occupation, protesters had made enough allegations of rape, sexual assault, and gropings that women-only sleeping tents were set up.[107][108][109][110] Occupy Wall Street organizers released a statement regarding the sexual assaults stating, "As individuals and as a community, we have the responsibility and the opportunity to create an alternative to this culture of violence, We are working for an OWS and a world in which survivors are respected and supported unconditionally ... We are redoubling our efforts to raise awareness about sexual violence. This includes taking preventive measures such as encouraging healthy relationship dynamics and consent practices that can help to limit harm."[111]
As the movement spread across the United States, theUnited States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) began keeping tabs on protesters, under the pretext that the protest was a potential locus of violence. Following this, there was a DHS report entitled "SPECIAL COVERAGE: Occupy Wall Street", dated October 2011, observed that "mass gatherings associated with public protest movements can have disruptive effects on transportation, commercial, and government services, especially when staged in majormetropolitan areas." The DHS keeps a file on the movement and monitors social media for information.[112][113]
On December 21, 2012,Partnership for Civil Justice obtained and published U.S. government documents[114] revealing that over a dozen localFBI field offices,DHS and other federal agencies monitored Occupy Wall Street, despite labeling it a peaceful movement.[115]The New York Times reported in May 2014 that declassified documents showed extensive surveillance of OWS-related groups across the country.[116]
The first person arrested was Alexander Arbuckle, a student videographer fromNew York University engaged in a class project. The police department alleged he was blocking the street. However, video shown at his trial showed the protesters including Arbuckle, had followed police orders and withdrew to the sidewalk.[117]
Gideon Oliver, who represented Occupy with theNational Lawyers Guild in New York, said about 2,000 [protesters] had been arrested just in New York City alone. Most of these arrests in New York and elsewhere, were on charges ofdisorderly conduct,trespassing, and failure to disperse.[118] Nationally, a little under 8,000 Occupy-affiliated arrests have been documented by tallying numbers published in local newspapers.[119]
In a report[120] that followed an eight-month study, researchers at the law schools of NYU andFordham accuse theNYPD of deploying unnecessarily aggressive force, obstructingpress freedoms and making arbitrary and baseless arrests.[121]
On October 1, 2011, a large group of protesters set out to walk across theBrooklyn Bridge resulting in 768 arrests, the largest number of arrests in one day at any Occupy event.[122][123][2] By October 2, all but 20 of the arrestees had been released with citations fordisorderly conduct and a criminal court summons.[124] On October 4, a group of protesters who were arrested on the bridge filed a lawsuit against the city, alleging that officers had violated their constitutional rights by luring them into a trap and then arresting them.[125]
In June 2012, a federal judge ruled that the protesters had not received sufficient warning.[126]
Video of his arrest was convincing evidence in Alexander Arbuckle's acquittal.[117]
In 2011, eight men associated with Occupy Wall Street were found guilty of trespassing, having intended to set up a camp on property controlled byTrinity Church. One was also convicted of attempted criminal mischief and attempted criminal possession of burglar's tools for trying to slice a lock on a chain-link fence with bolt cutters, spending a month inprison. The rest were sentenced tocommunity service.[127][128]
In May 2012, three cases in a row were thrown out of court, the most recent one for "insufficient summons".[129]
One defendant,Michael Premo, charged with assaulting an officer, was found not guilty after the defense presented video evidence which "showed officers charging into the defendant unprovoked", contradicting the sworn testimony of NYPD officers.[130]
In April 2014, the final Occupy court case, theTrial of Cecily McMillan began.Cecily McMillan was charged with and convicted of assaulting a police officer and sentenced to 90 days inRikers Island Penitentiary.[131] McMillan claimed the assault was an accident and a response to what she claimed to be a sexual assault at the hands of said officer.[132] The jury that found her guilty recommended no jail time.[133] She was released after serving 60 days.[134]
During an October 6 news conference, PresidentBarack Obama said, "I think it expresses the frustrations the American people feel, that we had the biggestfinancial crisis since theGreat Depression, huge collateral damage all throughout the country ... and yet you're still seeing some of the same folks who acted irresponsibly trying to fight efforts to crack down on the abusive practices that got us into this in the first place."[135][136]
On October 5, 2011, noted commentator and political satiristJon Stewart said in hisDaily Show broadcast: "If the people who were supposed to fix our financial system had actually done it, the people who have no idea how to solve these problems wouldn't be getting shit for not offering solutions."[137]
Republican presidential candidateMitt Romney said that while there were "bad actors" that needed to be "found and plucked out", he believes that targeting one industry or region of America is a mistake, and said the Occupy Wall Street protests are "dangerous" and inciting "class warfare".[138][139] A week later, Romney expressed empathy for the movement, saying, "I look at what's happening on Wall Street and my view is, boy, I understand how those people feel."[140]
In November 2011,Public Policy Polling did a national survey which found that 33% of voters supported OWS and 45% opposed it, with 22% not sure. 43% of those polled had a higher opinion of theTea Party movement than the Occupy movement.[143] In January 2012, a survey was released byRasmussen Reports, in which 51% of likely voters found protesters to be a public nuisance, while 39% saw it as a valid protest movement representing the people.[144]
The Occupy Movement has been criticized for not having a set of clear demands that could be used to prompt formal policy change. This lack of agenda has been cited as the reason why the Occupy Movement fizzled before achieving any specific legislative changes. Although the lack of demands has simultaneously been argued as one of the advantages of the movement,[147] the protesters in Occupy rejected the idea of having only one demand, or a set of demands, and instead represented a host of broad demands that did not specifically allude to a desired policy agenda.[148][149]
Although the movement's primary slogan was "We are the 99%", it was criticized for not encompassing the voice of the entire 99%, specifically lower-class individuals and minorities. For example, it was characterized as being "overwhelmingly white".[150] The lack of African-American presence was especially notable, with the movement being criticized in several news outlets and journal articles for its lack of black protestors.[151][152][153]
Some publications mentioned that the Occupy Wall Street Movement failed to spark any true institutional changes in banks and in Corporate America. This idea is supported by the scandals that continued to emerge following the2008 financial crisis such as theLondon whale incident, theLibor scandal, and theHSBC money laundering discovery. Furthermore, the idea of excess compensation through salaries and bonuses at Wall Street banks continued to be a contentious topic following the Occupy protests, especially as bonuses increased during a period of falling bank profits.[154][155][156]
The movement was also criticized for not building a sustainable base of support and instead fading quickly after its initial spark in late 2011 through early 2012.[157] This may be attributed to Occupy's lack of legislative victories, which left the protestors with a lack of measurable goals. It was also argued that the movement was too tied to its base,Zuccotti Park. Evidence of this lies in the fact that when the police evicted the protestors on November 15, the movement largely dissipated.[158][159] While there is evidence that the movement had an enduring impact, protests and direct mentions of theOccupy movement quickly became uncommon.[160][161][157]
Some Occupy Wall Street protests have includedanti-zionist and/or anti-Semitic slogans and signage such as "Jews control Wall Street" or "Zionist Jews who are running the big banks and the Federal Reserve". As a result, theOccupy movement has been confronted with accusations of anti-Semitism by major US media outlets and US politicians.[162][163][164]
A 2017 book released byBrookings Institution senior fellowRichard V. Reeves calledDream Hoarders: How the American Upper Middle Class Is Leaving Everyone Else in the Dust, Why That Is a Problem, and What to Do about It, presented data which showed that "more than a third of the demonstrators on the May Day 'Occupy' march in 2011 had annual earnings of more than $100,000. But, rather than looking up in envy and resentment, the upper middle class would do well to look at their own position compared to those falling further and further behind."[165]
Occupy Wall Street mounted an ambitious call for a citywidegeneral strike and day of action on May 1, 2012. Tens of thousands of people participated in a march through New York City, demonstrating continued support for Occupy Wall Street's cause and concerns.
Occupy Sandy was an organized relief effort created to assist the victims ofHurricane Sandy in the northeastern United States, made up of former and present Occupy Wall Street protesters, other members of the Occupy movement, and former non-Occupy volunteers.[166]
To celebrate the third anniversary of the occupation of Zuccotti Park, an Occupy Wall Street campaign called "Strike Debt" announced it had wiped out almost $4 million instudent loans, amounting to the indebtedness of 2,761 students. The loans were all held by students ofEverest College, afor profit college that operatesCorinthian Colleges, Inc. which in turn ownsEverest University,Everest Institute,Heald College, andWyoTech. Strike Debt, and a successor organization, The Debt Collective, were active in organizing the Corinthian 100 students who struck against Corinthian college, a for-profit school that was shut down by the U.S. Department of Education.[167][168]
Occupy the SEC came together during the occupation. The group seeks to represent the 99% in the regulatory process. They first attracted attention in 2012 when they submitted a 325-page comment letter on theVolcker Rule portion ofDodd Frank.[169]
Another offshoot of the Occupy Movement, calling itself the OWS Alternative Banking Group, was established during the occupation of Zuccotti Park in 2011.[170]
Writing inSalon,David Sirota, aprogressive political commentator,[171] comparedThe Dark Knight Rises (2012) and the gameCall of Duty to 1980s popular culture reflecting the political period of the time, accusing them of perpetuating a conservative agenda: "Just as so many 1980s pop culture products reflected the spirit of theReagan Revolution's conservative backlash, we are now seeing two blockbuster, genre-shaping products not-so-subtly reflect theTea Party's rhetorical backlash to the powerful Occupy Wall Street zeitgeist."[172] This supposed conservatism was also noted by Occupy Wall Street leaderDavid Graeber who stated that the film "really is a piece of anti-Occupy propaganda".[173] An article inVariety reported Chuck Dixon, the cocreator of the Bane character, as saying that Bane is "far more akin to an Occupy Wall Street type if you're looking to cast him politically."[174]
In 2013, commentators described Occupy Wall Street as having influenced thefast food worker strikes.[175] Occupy Wall Street organizers also contributed to a worker campaign at Hot & Crusty cafe in New York City, helping them obtain higher wages and the right to form a union by working with aworker center;[176] the collaboration between the striking workers and Occupy Wall Street protestors is documented in the 2014 filmThe Hand That Feeds.[177][178][179] Occupy Wall Street has been credited with reintroducing a strong emphasis on income inequality into broad political discourse and, relatedly, for inspiring the fight for a $15 minimum wage.[180]
In 2014, the movement inspired two former debt collections executives Craig Antico and Jerry Ashton to createUndue Medical Debt, a charity that buys up delinquent medical debt at pennies on the dollar, just as debt collectors do – meaning even small donations to the charity have a big impact.[181]
In 2021, on the 10th anniversary of Occupy Wall Street,The Atlantic listed several long-term influences of the protests, including "Reinventing Activism" by encouraging "a generation to take to the streets and demand systemic reforms", influencing theGreen New Deal, influencing activism for higher minimum wages, and "shifting the window of what is deemed politically acceptable discourse and pulling the nation to the left."[182]
^Author Dan Berrett writes: "But Occupy Wall Street's most defining characteristics—its decentralized nature and its intensive process of participatory, consensus-based decision-making—are rooted in other precincts of academe and activism: in the scholarship of anarchism and, specifically, in an ethnography of central Madagascar."[9]
^Schneider, Nathan (September 29, 2011)."Occupy Wall Street: FAQ".The Nation.Archived from the original on November 18, 2011. RetrievedOctober 12, 2011.
^Batchelor, Laura (October 6, 2011)."Occupy Wall Street lands on private property".CNNMoney. Archived fromthe original on November 13, 2013. RetrievedOctober 7, 2011.Many of the Occupy Wall Street protesters might not realize it, but they got really lucky when they elected to gather at Zuccotti Park in downtown Manhattan
^"Occupy Wall Street: A protest timeline".The Week. November 21, 2011. Archived fromthe original on February 9, 2014.A relatively small gathering of young anarchists and aging hippies in lower Manhattan has spawned a national movement. What happened?
^Alessi, Christopher (October 17, 2011)."Occupy Wall Street's Global Echo". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived fromthe original on May 2, 2014. RetrievedOctober 17, 2011.The Occupy Wall Street protests that began in New York City a month ago gained worldwide momentum over the weekend, as hundreds of thousands of demonstrators in nine hundred cities protested corporate greed and wealth inequality.
^Jones, Clarence (October 17, 2011)."Occupy Wall Street and the King Memorial Ceremonies".The Huffington Post.Archived from the original on November 20, 2011. RetrievedOctober 17, 2011.The reality is that 'Occupy Wall Street' is raising the consciousness of the country on the fundamental issues of poverty, income inequality, economic justice, and the Obama administration's apparent double standard in dealing with Wall Street and the urgent problems of Main Street: unemployment, housing foreclosures, no bank credit to small business in spite of nearly three trillion of cash reserves made possible by taxpayers funding of TARP.
^abMatthews, Karen (October 7, 2011)."Wall Street functions like a small city". Associated Press. Archived fromthe original on October 9, 2011. RetrievedNovember 11, 2016.A general assembly of anyone who wants to attend meets twice daily. Because it's hard to be heard above the din of lower Manhattan and because the city is not allowing bullhorns or microphones, the protesters have devised a system ofhand symbols. Fingers downward means you disagree. Arms crossed means you strongly disagree. Announcements are made via the "people's mic ... you say it and the people immediately around you repeat it and pass the word along. ... Somewhere between 100 and 200 people sleep in Zuccotti Park. ... Many occupiers were still in their sleeping bags at 9 or 10 am
^"New York court upholds eviction of "Occupy" protesters". CNN. November 15, 2011. Archived fromthe original on February 22, 2014. RetrievedNovember 15, 2011.A New York Supreme Court has ruled not to extend a temporary restraining order that prevented the eviction of "Occupy" protesters who were encamped at Zuccotti Park, considered a home-base for demonstrators. Police in riot gear cleared out the protesters early Tuesday morning, a move that attorneys for the loosely defined group say was unlawful. But Justice Michael Stallman later ruled in favor of New York city officials and Brookfield properties, owners and developers of the privately owned park in Lower Manhattan. The order does not prevent protesters from gathering in the park, but says their First Amendment rights not do include remaining there, "along with their tents, structures, generators, and other installations to the exclusion of the owner's reasonable rights and duties to maintain Zuccotti Park."
^Pinto, Nick (September 17, 2013)."OWS: Studies of the movement".Al Jazeera America.Archived from the original on September 20, 2013. RetrievedAugust 15, 2018.
^Reeves, Richard V. (2017).Dream Hoarders: How The American Upper Middle Class Is Leaving Everyone Else In The Dust, Why That Is A Problem, And What To Do About It. Brookings Institution. p. 7.ISBN978-0-8157-2912-9.
^Sirota, David (June 4, 2008)."Book World: 'The Uprising'".Washington Post.Archived from the original on February 16, 2017. RetrievedSeptember 15, 2017.
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