TheOccupation of Araucanía orPacification of Araucanía (1861–1883) was a series ofmilitary campaigns,agreements and penetrations by theChilean military andsettlers intoMapuche territory which led to the incorporation ofAraucanía into Chilean national territory.Pacification of Araucanía was the expression used by the Chilean authorities for this process. The conflict was concurrent withArgentine campaigns against the Mapuche (1878–1885) aimed at establishing dominance overPatagonia andChile's warswith Spain (1865–1866) andwith Peru and Bolivia (1879–1883).
The Mapuche people had a history ofresistance to Spanish conquest with the area known as Araucanía remainingde facto independent through thecolonial era. Following Chile'sWar of Independence against theSpanish Empire, relations between the nascent republic and the Mapuches of Araucanía remained mostly amicable. Howevereconomic andgeopolitical reasons together withincreasingly negative attitudes towards the Mapuche made Chilean authorities decide to seek an incorporation of Araucanía, by force if necessary. The Mapuche chiefdoms responded in different ways, some aligned with the central government, a substantial number followed the lead of the Arribanos in violently opposing the advance of Chilean settlers and soldiers into the region, while some others opted for neutrality. For the first ten years (1861−1871), the Mapuches were unable to prevent Chile from advancing its positions but at time were able todefeat in detail small detachments while avoiding large battles. Hostilities were minimal in the decade that followed, this period was mostly peaceful but ended when the Mapuches were unable to militarily oppose a large Chilean army that in March 1881 penetrated from the north toCautín River, putting most of the territory under Chilean rule or at least occupation. In November 1881, the Mapuches made a last-ditch effort to regain control of their territory, launchingcoordinated strikes against Chilean settlements across the region. With most of these attacks repelled and Mapuche forces defeated within a matter of days, Chile went on to consolidate its conquests in the years that followed.
The conflict led to the deaths of thousands of Mapuche by warfare and disease, primarilysmallpox. Many Mapuches faced hardship from the widespread pillaging of the Chilean army,bandits and inability to cultivate. Disruption of the Mapuche economy was further aggravated by having their lands reduced plunging many intopoverty that has persisted for generations.
Beginning in the second half of the 18th century Mapuche-Spanish and later Mapuche-Chilean trade increased and hostilities decreased.[1] Mapuches obtainedgoods from Chile and some dressed in "Spanish" clothing.[2] Despite close contacts Chileans and Mapuches remained socially, politically and economically distinct.[2] During Chile's first fifty years of independence (1810–1860) the government's relationship with the Araucanía territory was not a priority and the Chilean government prioritized the development ofCentral Chile over its relationship with indigenous groups.[3][4]
Domingo Faustino Sarmiento stated:
Between two Chilean provinces (Concepción andValdivia) there is a piece of land that is not a province, its language is different, it is inhabited by other people and it can still be said that it is not part of Chile. Yes, Chile is the name of the country over where its flag waves and its laws are obeyed.[5]
The Chilean agricultural sector was badly affected by theChilean War of Independence.[6] Following theChilean silver rush that began in 1832, agriculture expanded in theNorte Chico.[6] The next major expansion of agricultural activity occurred from 1848 onwards as a result of wheat demand during the colonization ofAustralia and theCalifornia Gold Rush.[6] Despite the eventual vanishing of the Californian and Australian markets, wheat cultivation remained highly profitable.[6] In the 1850s, with theGerman colonization of Valdivia, Osorno and Llanquihue and theonset of sheep farming in the Chilean territory at theStrait of Magellan, Araucanía remained the sole place for agriculture to expand.[7]
Mapuche lands around the south of theBío-Bío River began to be bought by non-Mapuches in the late 18th century, and by 1860 land between Bío-Bío andMalleco River was mostly under control of Chileans.[7][8] TheChilean wheat boom increased pressure to acquire lands in Araucanía by Chileans and led to numerous scams and frauds against Mapuches.[9] A limited number ofspeculators obtained control over vast lands through frauds and maintained control over their assets with the aid of gunmen.[10]
A contrast appeared: while the Chilean economy had a booming agricultural sector, a large part of the Mapuche economy revolved around livestock operations in one of the largest territories any indigenous group had ever possessed in South America.[1]
In 1849 a ship travelling betweenValdivia andValparaíso,Joven Daniel, was wrecked at the coast between the mouths ofImperial andToltén River.[11] The shipwreck was looted by a local Mapuche tribe and some of the survivors were killed.[11] These events became first known in Valdivia and later in Santiago where they fuelled a strong anti-Mapuche sentiment and reaffirmed prejudiced views that the Mapuches were brutal barbarians.[11][12] PresidentManuel Bulnes's opposition called for apunitive expedition and Mapuches prepared for a confrontation with the Chilean Army.[11] Bulnes however dismissed the calls for a punitive expedition in view of its irrelevance to the eventual conquest of Araucanía.[11]
When Chilean liberals began the1851 Revolution Mapuche chiefMañil joined the rebel army and fought withJosé María de la Cruz's army against the troops ofManuel Bulnes at theBattle of Loncomilla.[12] After defeat at Loncomilla Mañil returned south.[12] According to historianJosé Bengoa Mapuches saw the government in Santiago as their main enemy, explaining thus the participation of Mapuches on the side of José María de la CruzConcepción-based revolt.[12]
The encroachment over time of settlers advancing from the north across Bío Bío River into Mapuche territory and the appearance ofGerman settlers in the south of the Mapuche territory led chief Mañil in 1859 to call for an uprising to assert control over the territory.[13] Most Mapuches responded to the call, except the communities atPurén,Choll Choll, and the southern coastal Mapuches who had strong links withValdivia.[13] The towns ofAngol,Negrete andNacimiento were attacked.[13] A peace proposal made by settlers was accepted in 1860 during a meeting of several Mapuche chiefs.[13] The agreement established that land transfers could only be made with the approval of the chiefs.[13]
The 1859 uprising reinforced the Chilean view of Mapuches as a dangerous threat to the emerging settlements in Araucanía and influenced public opinion in Chile to push for the complete incorporation of Araucanía into Chile.[14][15] These events contributed to the Chilean authorities' decision of occupying Araucanía.[13]
In 1823, Chilean ministerMariano Egaña had a project approved by Congress to colonize the territory betweenImperial River andBío Bío River, establishing a series of forts on the northern shores of Imperial andCautín Rivers in the middle of Araucanía.[16] Chilean presidentRamón Freire adopted the project initially but was later convinced to focus instead on the expulsion of the Spanish fromChiloé Archipelago, leaving the Araucanía issue pending.[16]
In 1849, Chilean ministerAntonio Varas delivered a report to the Chilean congress analyzing the situation in Araucanía.[3][17] In his report, Varas recommended that a government regime distinct from the rest of the country should be designed for an eventual incorporation of Araucanía.[17] Varas expressed the view that the eventual mission was to be tocivilize the indigenous inhabitants by increasing their material standard of living and "raise their spirit to the moral and religious truths".[17]
Manuel Montt, asPresident of Chile, passed a law on 7 December 1852, that created the province of Arauco, a territory intended to administer all territories south of the Bío-Bío River and north of Valdivia Province.[14][18] In a letter to Manuel Montt Mapuche chiefMañil denounced the plunder of graves in search ofMapuche silver, arson ofMapuche houses and other abuses against Mapuches that were happening in the newly created province. Mañil further accused intendant Villalón con Salbo of becoming rich bycattle theft.[19]
The final planning of the occupation of Araucanía can be largely attributed to ColonelCornelio Saavedra Rodríguez.[18][20] The plan outlined by Saavedra envisaged a state-led colonization influenced by the developments of theUnited States frontier in sharp contrast to the old private enterprise-led Spanish colonization of Chile.[20]The plan included the following points:[21][20]
In 1861Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez ordered majorPedro Lagos to advance into the confluence ofMulchén River withBureo River.[22] A small fort was erected at the site between December 1861 and May 1862 after the local Mapuche chiefManuel Nampai handed over the land. From this fort the town ofMulchén grew.[22] Following a custom inherited from colonial times, Saavedra assigned salaries to friendly Mapuche chiefs in zones of Mulchén.[23]
Cornelio Saavedra attempted to pressure the Chilean government to approve his plans by presenting his renounce in December 1861 and again in February 1862.[24][25][26]
In 1862 Saavedra advanced with a group of 800 soldiers into the remnants of the town ofAngol while other troops reinforced the defenses ofLos Ángeles,Negrete,Nacimiento and Mulchén. An eventual defense ofPurén andSanta Bárbara was to be made by groups of civilians.[27]
Saavedra retired from the army in January 1864 after political pressures from the ministers of PresidentJosé Joaquín Pérez.[28] TheChincha Islands War between Spain and an alliance between Chile and Peru made the government call Saavedra into the army again in 1866 in order to defend the coast of Araucanía against possible Spanish attacks.[29] Saavedra ordered a fort to be constructed in the coast betweenLebu andImperial River.[29] The government also granted Saavedra three steam ships toscout the coast.[30] In December 1866 the coastal locality ofQueule was occupied by Chilean troops.[30]
In response to the Chilean advances, theArribanos decided to go to war while theLafquenches ofBudi Lake,Toltén andQueule had a meeting where they declared themselves neutral in the conflict but still loyal to the Chilean government.[26] ThePehuenches did also declare themselves neutral.[26] The Pehuenche chief Pichiñán is reported to have spoken against theMoluches, who wanted war, claiming that they engaged in robbery and received for that just punishments by Chileans.[26] HistorianJosé Bengoa claims Pehuenche neutrality was indebted to the fact that their lands in the Andes were not subject to colonization.[26] Nevertheless, the Pehuenches ended up aiding the Arribanos by providing access to cattle from thePampas.[31]
In 1867 Saavedra called the Mapuches to a "parliament" where he informed them of the Chilean decision of fortifying the Malleco River line.[32] The parliament was attended by around thousandAbajinos.[33] The Arribanos gathered around 2000 men near the parliament but refused to attend unless the Chileans sent some men ashostages.[33] Despite this incident the a parliament was held the next day.[33] Mapuches are reported to have been infuriated when they discovered the plans of Saavedra and that Mapuche chief Nahueltripai had allowed the Chileans to establish forts in his lands.[33]
These events lead to the formation of an alliance between the northern Abajinos and the Arribanos.[32]
As the Mapuches prepared for war many moved their families to safe sites south ofCautín River (according toEl Mercurio de Valparaíso) or toLonquimay (according toEl Ferrocarril).[34] The Abajino chiefs Catrileo and Pinolevi who had close ties with the Chilean government refused to join the Abajino-Arribano alliance and were in 1868 killed in amalón directed at them.[35]
In 1868 the Arribano chiefQuilapán, son ofMañil, attacked a Chilean outpost atChihuaihue.[34] A group of Chileans led byPedro Lagos came under attack while moving toQuechereguas.[34] Yet another party of Mapuches defeated a Chilean Army group killing 23 of 28 soldiers.[34] In response to the initial failure commandant José Manuel Pinto launched ascorched earth strategy in Mapuche lands in the summer of 1869.[34] In these incursions by the Chilean Armies houses and crop fields were looted and more than 2 million livestock animals stolen from Mapuches.[36] Part of the Mapuche civil population, including women and children, were either killed or held captive.[36][37] In addition to the pillaging by the Chilean Army, bandits looted Mapuche property with consent of Chilean authorities.[38] The Mapuches refused to engage in battles allowing the Chilean armies cross all over their territory.[39] The differences in war materiel between Mapuches and the Chilean Army was huge, while Chileans usedrepeating rifles Mapuches had few firearms and usedbolas,spears andslings.[36][40]
The war provoked a famine among Mapuches in the winter of 1869, with the situation being worsened by asmallpox epidemic.[41] Some Mapuches sold their few remaining livestock andtheir silver adornments in the towns ofLa Frontera to obtain food.[41]
In late 1869 and early 1870 Saavedra arranged two parliaments; one at Toltén and another at Ipinco.[42] At Toltén Saavedra attempted to make agreements with the southern chiefs in order to isolate Quilapán. The chiefs attending the meeting could not agree on whether Saavedra should be allowed to establish a town in southern Araucanía or not.[42] At Toltén Mapuche chiefs revealed to Saavedra thatOrélie-Antoine de Tounens was once again at Araucanía.[42] Upon hearing that his presence in Araucanía had been revealed Orélie-Antoine de Tounens fled to Argentina, having however promisedQuilapán to obtain arms.[42] There are some reports that a shipment of arms seized by Argentine authorities at Buenos Aires in 1871 were ordered by Orélie-Antoine de Tounens.[43] A French battleship,d'Entrecasteaux, that anchored in 1870 atCorral drew suspicions from Saavedra of some sort of French interference.[42] Accordingly, there may have been substance to these fears as information given toAbdón Cifuentes in 1870 an intervention in favour of theKingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia against Chile was discussed inNapoleon III's Conseil d'État.[44]
At the parliament of Ipinco the Abajinos rejected all the points proposed by Saavedra. The parliament did nevertheless serve to weaken the Abajino–Arribano alliance.[42]
In 1870 the Chilean Army resumed its operations against the Mapuches. José Manuel Pinto formally declared war to the Mapuches on behalf of Chile in May 1870.[45] In the 1870-1871 period the Mapuches tended to evacuate their families in advance prior to the arrivals of the looting Chilean Army.[46] During the winter of 1870 the Chilean Army continued to burnrukas and steal livestock.[46] These inconclusive operations were subject of ridicule in some Santiago newspapers.[46] Despite this the situation of many Mapuche worsened; newspaperEl Meteoro reported scarcity of food, livestock numbers had declined and harvest or sowing had not been possible for many Mapuches for almost three years.[47]Domingo Melín, who went on behalf ofQuilapán, sought unsuccessfully in 1870 a peace agreement with Chile.[48]
In the summer of 1871 Quilapán amassed an army that included reinforcement of Mapuches coming from Argentina and launched a campaign against the fortified Malleco Line and the settlers around it.[48] This attack was repulsed by the Chilean Army whose cavalry had recently replaced theirMinié rifles withSpencer carbines, giving them a distinct advantage against the Mapuches.[48]
Quilapán sent a letter in March 1871 toOrozimbo Barbosa seeking for a peace agreement.[48] No agreement took place but hostilities ceased for 10 years (1871–1881).[49][50]Cornelio Saavedra renounced to the command of the Army of Operations of Araucanía (Ejército de Operaciones en la Araucanía) in 1871 due to political reasons.[51]
During the period following the war of 1871 Mapuches in the Chilean occupied parts suffered many abuses and even murder by settlers and Chilean military.[52][53]
Mapuches noticed the shrinking of Chilean garrisons as Chile sent troops northwards to fight Peru and Bolivia during theWar of the Pacific (1879–1883). The apparent weakening of Chilean military presence in Araucanía and the many abuses caused the Mapuches to start planning rebellion.[52]
A case of horse theft in 1880 caused chiefDomingo Melín to be escorted by Chilean troops toAngol in order to stand trial. Before reaching Angol Domingo Melín and some of his relatives werekilled by the Chilean military.[53] The Mapuches responded to this by attacking the fort and village ofTraiguén in September 1880.[53] Almost thousand warriors participated in the retribution, evidence that according toJosé Bengoa the Mapuches had been preparing for war.[53]
Thecampaigns of the Argentine Army against the Mapuches in the other side of the Andes pushed in 1880 many Mapuches into Araucanía.[54]Pehuenche chiefPurrán was taken prisoner by the Argentine Army and the Argentine Army penetrated in the valley ofLonquimay which Chile considered part of its legal territory.[54] The fast Argentine advance alarmed Chilean authorities and contributed to the Chilean-Mapuche confrontations of 1881.[54]
In January 1881 the Mapuches of theMalleco zone rose against the Chilean occupation.[54] The town and forts ofTraiguén,Lumaco andCollipulli were attacked.[55]
Having decisively defeated Peru in thebattles of Chorrillos andMiraflores in January 1881 Chilean authorities turned their attention to Araucanía seeking to defend the previous advances that had been so difficult to establish.[55][56][57] The idea was not only to defend forts and settlements but also to advance the frontier all the way fromMalleco River toCautín River.[55][57] Interior ministerManuel Recabarren was appointed by presidentAníbal Pinto to oversee the process from the town ofAngol.[56][57] ColonelGregorio Urrutia was summoned fromChilean-occupied Lima to Araucanía to take charge of the Army of the South.[56]
On 28 March Gregorio Urrutia founded the town ofVictoria at the shores of Traiguén River.[58] Recabarren personally led a largecolumn that established the forts ofQuillem,Lautaro andPillalelbún.[59] In this last place Recabarren was approached by some Mapuche chiefs who asked him to not advance beyond Cautín River.[59] Recabarren answered by telling them that the whole territory was being occupied.[59] At the founding of Temuco in the northern shores of Cautín River Recabarren met chiefVenacio Coñoepán and other chiefs from Choll-Choll who asked him to not advance further.[59]
With the Chilean advance to Cautín River a small mountain range called Cadena de Ñielol remained a focus of Mapuche resistance from where warriors conducted pillaging raids or attacks against vulnerable targets.[60] To end this activity Gregorio Urrutia established a fort in the range.[60]
Initially Mapuches offered little resistance to Chilean advance to Cautín River.[59] Recabarren believed that Mapuches had not reacted because they expected the foundation of new forts and towns to be preceded by parliaments with Chilean authorities.[59]
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A wave of Mapuche attacks began in late February 1881, just a few days after the founding ofTemuco in the middle of Mapuche territory.[61] The first major attack was against a caravan of carts carrying injured soldiers from Temuco toFuerte Ñielol.[61] The whole escort of over 40 soldiers and the 96 injured and sick soldiers were killed.[62] In response to these attacksGregorio Urrutia launched an attack on the Mapuche warriors of Cadena Ñielol burning in his way over 500rukas and captured over 800 cattle and horses.[63] On the other side of the AndesPehuenches assaulted on March the Argentine outpost ofChos Malal killing the whole garrison of 25-30 soldiers.[64] In mid-March Mapuche chiefs met to discuss the situation. They rejected the establishment of new Chilean settlements and decided to go to war.[62] They set 5 November as the date for their uprising.[65]
A group of Arribanos attacked by mistake on wrong date, 3 November, the fort ofQuillem.[65] This attack put on alert all Chilean garrisons in Araucanía, settlers took refuge in the forts.[65] On 5 November Mapuches unsuccessfully attackedLumaco,Puerto Saavedra andToltén.[66][67][68] AroundTirúa Costino warriors suffered heavy casualties in two engagements with a group of more than 400 armed settlers,campesinos and some soldiers.[69] OnlyImperial was effectively overrun.[68]
The most important engagements were held at the fort of Ñielol andTemuco located at the heart of Araucanía.[70] In these localities revolting Mapuches were unsuccessful in dislodging Chileans and their allies from fortified positions.[70][71]
The uprising was not unanimous as a number of Mapuche leaders and communities sided with Chile.[68][70] After defeat uprising Mapuche chiefs were severely punished. Therukas of Ancamilla and other revolting chiefs were razed.[72]
Cornelio Saavedra had considered the ability to cross the Andes one of the Mapuche's principal military strengths. To block Mapuches from freely crossing the Andes and to assert sovereignty over the Andean valleys several expeditions were organized in the summer of 1882.[73] One expedition founded the fort ofNitrito in the Andeanvalley of Lonquimay, another foundedCunco nearLlaima Volcano and yet another expedition foundedCuracautín in the upper course ofCautín River.[73]
On 1 January 1883, Chile re-founded the old city ofVillarrica ending thus formally the process of occupation of Araucanía.[9][74] Six months later, on 1 June, presidentDomingo Santa María declared:[75]
The country has with satisfaction seen the problem of the reduction of the whole Araucanía solved. This event, so important to our social and political life, and so significant for the future of the republic, has ended, happily and with costly and painful sacrifices. Today the whole Araucanía is subjugated, more than to the material forces, to the moral and civilizing force of the republic...
Historian Ward Churchill has claimed that the Mapuche population dropped from a total of half a million to 25,000 within a generation as result of the occupation and its associated disease and famine.[76] The conquest of Araucanía caused numerous Mapuches to be displaced and forced to roam in search of shelter and food.[77] Some Chilean forts responded by providing food rations.[77] Until around 1900 the Chilean state provided almost 10,000 food rations monthly to displaced Mapuches.[77] Mapuche poverty was recurring theme in Chilean Armymemoirs from the 1880s to around 1900.[77]
The Chilean government confined the Mapuche to nearly three thousand reductions (called "títulos de merced"), comprising 500,000hectares of land.[70]
The forts established in coast became nuclei for the formation of new towns.[78]
In the years following the occupation the economy of Araucanía changed from being based on sheep and cattle herding to one based onagriculture andwood extraction.[79] The loss of land by Mapuches following the occupation caused severeerosion since Mapuches continued to practise a massive livestock herding in limited areas.[80]
When the territory of Araucanía was subdued the Chilean government issued calls for immigration in Europe.[81]
Some Chilean intellectuals had by 1883 became critical of theGerman settlers in Southern Chile. Chilean ministerLuis Aldunate considered that Germans integrated poorly and that the country should avoid "exclusive and dominant races to monopolize the colonization".[82] For this reason after the Occupation of Araucanía was accomplished settlers of nationalities other than Germans were preferred in colonization programs.[82]
The most numerous groups of settlers were theItalians who settled mainly aroundLumaco, theSwiss who colonizedTraiguén andBoers who settled mainly aroundFreire andPitrufquén. Other settler nationalities includedEnglishmen,French people and Germans.[81] There are estimates that by 1886 there were 3,501 foreign settlers in Araucanía, another investigation points out that 5,657 foreign settlers arrived to Araucanía in the 1883–90 period.[81] According to Chile'sAgencia General de Colonización in the 1882-1897 period German settlers made up only 6% of the foreign immigrants that arrived to Chile, ranking behind those of Spanish, French, Italian, Swiss and English origin.[83]
At first Chilean settlers arrived to Araucanía by their own initiative. Later the government begun to stimulate the settlement of Chileans in Araucanía. Chilean settlers were mostly poor and largely remained so in their new lands.[84]
In 1858 there were 22 public schools in the province of Arauco. This number increased as with each new town established in Araucanía a school was built.[85] Public education definitely overshadowed the older and tiny missionary school system in Araucanía during the conquest.[85] During the conquest many Mapuche chiefs were forced to send their sons to study inChillán orConcepción.[86] In 1888 the provinces firsthigh school was established inTemuco.[87] Scholar Pablo Miramán claims the introduction of state education had detrimental effects on traditional Mapuche education in Araucanía.[86] The sons of Mapuche chiefs were the key targets of public education.[86]
After the Mapuche resistance had been crushed Araucanía suffered a sudden rise in violence and continued to be an insecure zone for many years.[88]Assaults androbbery were common.[89] Because of this until the 1920scarbines,revolvers and other firearms were common in the households of Araucanía.[89]
In 1896 a police force called Cuerpo de Gendarmes de las Colonias was created to improve law and order in the provinces of Arauco, Malleco, Cautín, Valdivia, Llanquihue and Chiloé.[90] This institution was until 1905 led by captainHernán Trizano.[90] Later Cuerpo de Gendarmes de las Colonias would be fused with other policing bodies to formCarabineros de Chile, Chile's current national police force.[90]
The Mapuche had prior to the 19th century been able to adapt to Spanish warfare. However the 19th century Mapuche proved unable to keep up the Chilean Army's modernization and change in tactics. The Chilean Army benefited greatly from the advances of theIndustrial Revolution, as it incorporatedmachine guns, new types ofcannons, rifles and revolvers.[91] Machine guns were incorporated to the Chilean Army in the 1870s and by 1879 Chile had fourteen.[92][93] Prior to theWar of the Pacific the Chilean Army had equipped itself with the most modern weaponry available in Europe and standardised ammunitions.[93][91] Chile also improved its logistics with the use ofsteamships in the rivers of Araucanía from the 1860s onward.[94] The expansion of railroads in the 1870s also helped Chilean logistics and communications making it possible for authorities in Santiago to quickly send reinforcements to Araucanía.[31]
Mapuche's had historically few firearms but were able to deal with gunpowder armed enemies whoserate of fire was low. The usual tactic was to awaitvolley fire and then rush before enemies were able to recharge.[91] Analysis ofQuilapán's tactics in the 1860s and 1870s reveal they were similar to the ones employed byLautaro in the 1550s.[31][91][95] An example of the technological changes favouring the Chilean Army was when Quilapán's warriors confronted the Chilean cavalry on 25 January 1871. In this confrontation mounted Mapuche warriors armed withspears andbolas faced Chilean troopers who had recently been re-equipped with repeatingSpencer carbines, replacing their single shotMinié rifle. After the first Chilean volley the Mapuches charged into hand-to-hand combat, expecting that their opponents' firearms would now be empty. When they received an almost immediate second volley they panicked and fled, and casualties amongst them were high.[48][96] Despite the success of some Mapuches to arm themselves with these new firearms they were rarely able to make effective use of them, due to a shortage ofammunition.[97]
Another factor was the lack of a cooperative defense against Chilean advances among the Mapuche tribes.[31] Many Mapuche only reacted once Chilean advance reached their territory, for example the Abajinos.[31] In contrast, 17th century Mapuches who successfully repelled repeated Spanish invasions had a "supra-local level of military solidarity" despite lacking state organization.[98]
