Nusach Ashkenaz can be subdivided into the German or Western branch—Minhag Ashkenaz—used in Western andCentral Europe, and the Polish-Lithuanian or Eastern branch—Minhag Polin—used in Central and Eastern Europe, the United States, and some Israeli Ashkenazim, particularly those who identify asLitvaks ("Lithuanian").[2]
The termMinhag Ashkenaz (the Western Ashkenazic rite) historically applied only to the nusach of southern German Jewry (in recent centuries defined very roughly as those south and west of theElbe), most notably the community ofFrankfurt.[3] In the Middle Ages, the border seems to have been further east. Northeastern German communities, such as Hamburg and Berlin, followedMinhag Polin,[3] although their musical tradition and pronunciation of Hebrew, and some of the traditions about the prayers included, were more reminiscent of the western communities than of Poland proper or even Austria–Hungary.
There are a number of minor differences between the Israeli and American Ashkenazi practice in that Israeli Ashkenazi Judaism follows some practices of theVilna Gaon (seePerushim § Influence) and Sephardic rite. For example, most Ashkenazic communities in Israel reciteEin Keloheinu during the week, as is the Sephardic practice.[4]
Leopold Zunz claimed that the Ashkenazi rite descended from the ancientEretz Israel minhag, while the Sephardi rite originated inBabylonia.[6]HakhamMoses Gaster, in his introduction to the prayer book of London'sSpanish and Portuguese Jews,[7] made precisely the opposite claim. All Jewish liturgies today are fundamentally Babylonian, with only a few usages from the land of Israel surviving the standardization process. Most differences preserved since the time of the Geonim, particularly those from Eretz Yisrael, are now obsolete.[8]
Medieval Ashkenazi scholars stated that the Ashkenazi rite is largely derived from theSiddur Rab Amram and theminorTalmudic tractateSoferim. This may be true, but it does not necessarily support Gaster's claim of Babylonian origin. As pointed out byLouis Ginzberg,[9][full citation needed] theSiddur Rab Amram had been heavily edited to reflect the Old Spanish rite. The Ashkenazi rite also contains earlyliturgical poetry from the land of Israel that was eliminated from other rites, and this fact was the main support for Zunz's[who?] theory.
In the broadest sense, the earliest recorded form of the Ashkenazi rite may be found in an early medieval prayer book calledMachzor Vitry. This, however, like theSiddur Rashi published a century later, records the Old French rite rather than the Ashkenazi (German) rite proper (though the differences are small). The Old French rite mostly died out after the expulsion of Jews from France in 1394, but some portions of it remained in the High Holiday liturgy of theAppam community of Northwest Italy until shortly after World War II (which has since gone extinct).[10] Both the Old French and the Ashkenazi rites have a loose family resemblance to other European rites, such as theItalian,Romaniote, andProvençal rites, and to a lesser extent the Catalan and Old Spanish rites: the current Sephardic rite has since been standardized to conform with the rulings of the Geonim, thereby showing some degree of convergence with the Babylonian and North African rites.[citation needed]
The liturgical compositions of Byzantine Jewry, especially thepiyyutim (hymns), found their way through Italy to Ashkenaz, beenny preserved in most modern Ashkenazimachzorim.[11]
Tefillin are worn onChol HaMoed (except on Shabbat Chol HaMoed). The original custom was to wear tefillin for the entire weekday Shacharit, Musaf, weekdayRosh Chodesh, and Chol HaMoed prayers; however, for the last several hundred years,[as of?] almost all take off tefillin immediately after theAmidah of Shacharit on Chol HaMoed—some keep them until after the Torah reading on the day ofPassover that "Shor or Kesev"[clarification needed] is read, since this reading contains the commandment to wear tefillin—and immediately prior to Musaf on Rosh Chodesh. Many today, particularly in Israel, do not wear tefillin during Chol HaMoed.
Separate blessings are said for the arm tefillin and the head tefillin.
Barukh she’amar is recited beforeHodu, unlike other customs that reciteHodu first.
In the summer months, the second blessing of theAmidah contains no reference to dew or rain. Sephardim insert the wordsmorid ha-tal ("who makes the dew fall").
Thekedushah of Shacharit begins with "neqaddesh et shimcha", and thekedushah of Musaf (on Shabbat andJewish holidays) starts with "na'aritz'cha ve-naqdish'cha".[12]
There is a single standard wording forBirkat Ha-Shanim of theAmidah, with only small variations between summer and winter.
According to the original custom, thePriestly Blessing is recited only onfestivals. In the Eastern Ashkenazic rite, it is generally recited only during the Musaf of festivals; in the Western Ashkenazic rite, it is recited during Shacharit and Musaf of festivals and duringNe’ila onYom Kippur. In most Ashkenazic communities in Israel, the Priestly Blessing is recited daily.
Barechenu, the substitute for thePriestly Blessing, is recited daily at Shacharit, whenever Musaf is recited, and duringMinchah of Yom Kippur andfast days.
The last blessing of theAmidah isSim Shalom in the morning service andShalom Rav in the afternoon and evening services. Congregations following German or Israeli Ashkenaz customs reciteSim Shalom during Shabbat Minchah because of the afternoon Torah reading.
TheTorah scroll is lifted and displayed to the congregation after the Torah reading rather than before.
It is customary for the entire congregation to stand forKaddish.
Ein Keloheinu concludes with a stanza about makingincense. It is recited only on Shabbat and holidays. Most communities in Israel recite it every day.
The morning service on Shabbat and holidays containsAnim Zemirot. Many communities recite it after Musaf, although others recite it after Shacharit, right before taking out the Torah.
Avoidingkitniyot during Passover is a binding custom.
Blessings are said over all four cups of wine at thePassover Seder.
Selichot do not begin until the night (or day) following the Shabbat immediately beforeRosh Hashanah if Rosh Hashanah falls on Thursday or Shabbat, or a week-and-a-half before if Rosh Hashanah falls on Monday or Tuesday.
Each household member lights one set ofHanukkah lights.
Theshammash is used to light the otherHanukkah lights.
^See Jonah and Avraham Fraenkel,Tefilah u-piyut be-mahzor Nuremberg for a detailed discussion of the differences between the Eastern and Western Ashkenazic rites.
^Bowman, S. "Jews of Byzantium", p. 153 Cf. Hebrew Studies by Yonah David, Shirei Zebadiah (Jerusalem 1972), Shirei Amitai (Jerusalem, 1975) and Shirei Elya bar Schemaya (New York and Jerusalem 1977); and the material in the Chronicle of Ahima'az.
^Keduashah of Musaf of weekdayChol HaMoed and New Moon begins "neqaddesh es shimcha", like every other kedushah during the week. OnHoshanah Rabba, the Eastern Ashkenazic rite recites the Festival version, whereas the Western Ashkenazic rite recites the weekday version.
Goldschmidt,Meḥqare Tefillah u-Fiyyut (On Jewish Liturgy): Jerusalem 1978
Kalib, Sholom,The Musical Tradition of the Eastern European Synagogue (2 vols out of projected 5): Syracuse University Press 2001 (vol 1) and 2004 (vol 2)
Wieder, Naphtali,The Formation of Jewish Liturgy: In the East and the West
Zimmels, Hirsch Jakob,Ashkenazim and Sephardim: their Relations, Differences, and Problems As Reflected in the Rabbinical Responsa: London 1958 (since reprinted).ISBN0-88125-491-6
