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Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source ofelectricity in India after coal,hydro, solar and wind. As of April 2025[update],India has 25nuclear reactors in operation in 7nuclear power plants, with a total installed capacity of 8,880 MW.[1][2]Nuclear power produced a total of 57TWh in FY 2024-25, contributing around 3% of total power generation in India.[3] 11 more reactors are under construction with a combined generation capacity of 8,700 MW.
In October 2010, India drew up a plan to reach a nuclear power capacity of 63 GW in 2032.[4] However, following the 2011Fukushima nuclear disaster, there have been numerous anti-nuclear protests at proposed nuclear power plant sites.[5]There have been mass protests against theJaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and theKudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu, and a proposedlarge nuclear power plant near Haripur was refused permission by theGovernment of West Bengal.[5]APublic Interest Litigation (PIL) has also been filed against the government's civil nuclear programme at the Supreme Court.[5][6]
India has been making advances in the field ofthorium-based fuels, working to design and develop a prototype for an atomic reactor using thorium and low-enriched uranium, a key part ofIndia's three stage nuclear power programme.[7]
| Year | Generation (TWh) |
|---|---|
| 2005 | 17.6 |
| 2006 | 17.7 |
| 2007 | 17.7 |
| 2008 | 15.0 |
| 2009 | 16.8 |
| 2010 | 23.0 |
| 2011 | 32.3 |
| 2012 | 33.1 |
| 2013 | 33.1 |
| 2014 | 34.5 |
| 2015 | 38.4 |
| 2016 | 38.0 |
| 2017 | 37.4 |
| 2018 | 39.1 |
| 2019 | 45.2 |
| 2020 | 44.6 |
| 2021 | 43.9 |
| 2022 | 46.2 |
| 2023 | 48.2 |
As early as 1901, theGeological Survey of India (GSI) had recognised India as potentially having significant deposits of radioactive ores, includingpitchblende,uranium andthorianite. In the ensuing 50 years, however, little to no effort was made to exploit those resources.[11] During the 1920s and 1930s, Indian scientists maintained close links to their counterparts in Europe and the United States, and were well aware of the latest developments in physics. Several Indian physicists, notablyDaulat Singh Kothari,Meghnad Saha,Homi J. Bhabha andR. S. Krishnan, conducted pioneering research innuclear physics in Europe during the 1930s.
By 1939, Meghnad Saha, the Palit Professor of Physics at theUniversity of Calcutta, had recognised the significance of the discovery ofnuclear fission, and had begun to conduct various experiments in his laboratory related to nuclear physics. In 1940, he incorporated nuclear physics into the university's post-graduate curriculum.[12] In the same year, theSir Dorabji Tata Trust sanctioned funds for installing acyclotron at the University of Calcutta, but various difficulties likely related to the war delayed the project.[13] In 1944,Homi J. Bhabha, a distinguished nuclear physicist who had established a research school at theIndian Institute of Science, Bangalore, wrote a letter to his distant cousinJ. R. D. Tata, the chairman of theTata Group. He requested funds to establish a research institute of fundamental physics, "with special reference to cosmic rays and nuclear physics." TheTata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was inaugurated inMumbai the following year.[14]
Following theatomic bombing of Hiroshima in August 1945, R.S. Krishnan, a nuclear physicist who had studied underNorman Feather andJohn Cockcroft, and who recognised the massive energy-generating potential of uranium, observed, "If the tremendous energy released from atomic explosions is made available to drive machinery, etc., it will bring about an industrial revolution of a far-reaching character." He further noted, however, the difficulties in harnessing nuclear power for peaceful usage, "...a great deal more research work is needed before atomic power can be put to industrial use."[15]
In March 1946, the Board of Scientific and Industrial Research (BSIR), under theCouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), set up an Atomic Research Committee under Bhabha's leadership to explore India's atomic energy resources and to suggest ways to develop and harness them, along with establishing contacts with similar organisations in other nations.[16] At the same time, theUniversity of Travancore's research council met to discussTravancore's future industrial development. Among other matters, the council made recommendations for developing the state's resources ofmonazite, a valuablethorium ore, andilmenite, with regard to their applications in atomic energy. The council suggested the project could be undertaken by an all-India programme.[16] This was followed by the deputation of Bhabha and SirShanti Swarup Bhatnagar, the Director of the CSIR, to Travancore in April 1947 and the establishment of a working relationship with the kingdom'sdewan, SirC. P. Ramaswami Iyer.[17]
Early in 1947, plans were made to establish a Uranium Unit under the Geological Survey of India, to focus on identifying and developing resources of uranium-bearing minerals.[18] In June 1947, two months beforeIndian independence,Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, then Minister for Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in theInterim Government of India, established an advisory board for research in atomic energy. Chaired by Bhabha and placed under the CSIR, the advisory board included Saha, Bhatnagar and several other distinguished scientists, notably SirK. S. Krishnan, the co-discoverer of theRaman effect, geologistDarashaw Nosherwan Wadia andNazir Ahmed, a student ofErnest Rutherford. A Joint Committee comprising the above scientists and three representatives of the Travancore government was set up to determine how best to utilise Travancore's resources of monazite.[19] Following the independence and partition of India, Travancore briefly declared itself independent before acceding to the newDominion of India in 1949 after a period of intense negotiations, while Ahmad departed forPakistan, where he would eventually head that nation's atomic energy agency.
On 23 March 1948, Prime MinisterJawaharlal Nehru introduced the Atomic Energy Bill in the Indian Parliament,[20] and it was subsequently passed as the Indian Atomic Energy Act. Modelled on the British Atomic Energy Act 1946, the Act granted sweeping powers to the central government over nuclear science and research, including surveying for atomic minerals, the development of such mineral resources on an industrial scale, conducting research regarding the scientific and technical problems connected with developing atomic energy for peaceful purposes, the training and education of the necessary personnel and the fostering of fundamental research in the nuclear sciences in Indian laboratories, institutes and universities.[14] Around the same time, theGovernment of West Bengal sanctioned the construction of a nuclear physics institute under the University of Calcutta; the cornerstone was laid in May 1948,[21] and the institute was inaugurated on 11 January 1950 byIrène Joliot-Curie.[12]
With effect from 1 June 1948, the advisory board for Research in Atomic Energy, together with its parent organisation the CSIR, was folded into the newDepartment of Scientific Research and placed directly under the Prime Minister. On 3 August 1948, theAtomic Energy Commission of India (AEC) was established and made separate from the Department of Scientific Research, with Bhabha as its first chairman.[22] In January 1949, the AEC met to formulate a uniform under- and post-graduate university syllabus for theoretical and fundamental physics and chemistry, to guarantee sufficient numbers of nuclear scientists and to ensure they would receive consistent levels of training and education.[23] In the same year, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was designated by the CSIR as the hub for all major nuclear science research projects. In 1950, the government announced it would purchase all available stocks of uranium and beryllium minerals and ores, and declared large rewards for any significant discoveries of the same.[24][25] On 3 January 1954, the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) was established by the Atomic Energy Commission to consolidate all nuclear reactor research and technology-related developments; on 3 August, the Atomic Energy Commission and all its subordinate agencies, including the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and the nuclear research institute at Calcutta University, were transferred to the newDepartment of Atomic Energy and placed under the direct charge of the Prime Minister's Office.[14] In May 1956, construction on a uranium metal plant and a fuel element fabrication facility for the research reactors began at Trombay; the uranium plant came into operation in January 1959, followed by the fuel element facility in February 1960.[26][27] The AEET (renamed theBhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967, after Bhabha's death) was formally inaugurated by Nehru in January 1957.[26] With the expanding scope of Indian nuclear research, the 1948 Atomic Energy Act was amended in 1961, and was passed as the new Atomic Energy Act, coming into force in September 1962.[28][29][26]
At a meeting of the Atomic Energy Commission on 15 March 1955, the decision was made to construct a small nuclear reactor at Trombay. The reactor would be used for training personnel for the operation of future reactors and for research, including experiments in nuclear physics, studying the effects of irradiation and the production of isotopes for medical, agricultural and industrial research.[30] In October 1955, an agreement was signed by theUnited Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority and the Indian Department of Atomic Energy, under which Britain would supply uranium fuel elements for aswimming pool reactor to be designed by India.[30] The agreement further ensured the "close cooperation and mutual assistance between the Department and the Authority in the promotion and development of the peaceful uses of atomic energy," and provided for future design and collaboration in the construction of ahigh flux reactor at a later date.[31] NamedApsara, the reactor was housed in a 100 x 50 x 70 concrete building. India's and Asia's first nuclear reactor,Apsara, reached criticality at 3:45 p.m. on 4 August 1956 and was inaugurated by Prime Minister Nehru on 20 January 1957.[30][32][33]
In April 1955, the Canadian government under Prime MinisterLouis St. Laurent offered to assist in building anNRX-type reactor for India under theColombo Plan, of which both India and Canada were then members. Prime Minister St. Laurent expressed hopes the reactor would serve India well in the development of peaceful atomic research and development. On behalf of the Indian government, Nehru formally accepted the offer that September, stating the reactor would be made available to any accredited foreign scientists, including those from other Colombo Plan member states.[34][35][36] On 28 April 1956, Nehru and the Canadian High Commissioner to IndiaEscott Reid signed an agreement for a "Canada-India Colombo Plan Atomic Reactor Project." Under the terms of the agreement, Canada would provide a 40 MWCIRUS reactor for solely research purposes, including the initial manufacture and engineering of the reactor, and would also provide technical expertise, including training Indian personnel in its operation. India would supply the reactor site and foundation, and would also pay all "internal" costs, including the construction of the reactor complex, the costs of local labour and any shipping and insurance fees.[37] Under Article II of the agreement, India would make the reactor facilities available to other Colombo Plan nations. Article III stipulated that the "reactor and any products resulting from its use will be employed for peaceful purposes only;"[37] at the time, however, there were no effective safeguards to ensure this clause.[35][36] A further agreement was made with the United States government to supply 21 tons ofheavy water for the reactor.[38] Construction of the reactor began later in 1956, with Indian technical personnel sent to Chalk River for training.[39] CIRUS was completed in early 1960 and after achieving criticality in July 1960, was inaugurated by Nehru in January 1961.[40] Construction of a third research reactor, ZERLINA (Zero Energy Reactor for Lattice Investigations and New Assemblies) began at Trombay in 1958; ZERLINA was also commissioned in 1961.[41]
In September 1955, the question of building a commercial nuclear power station was raised in Parliament.[42] Shortly after theworld's first commercial nuclear power plant came online atObninsk in theSoviet Union, the Soviets invited a number of Indian experts to visit it; the United States concurrently offered training in atomic energy to Indian technical and scientific personnel.[43] In August 1957, members of the Gujarat Chamber of Commerce inAhmedabad (then inBombay State) requested an atomic power station for their city, by which time the Indian government was actively considering the construction of at least "one or more large Atomic Power Stations to generate electricity."[44] By November 1958, the Atomic Energy Commission had recommended construction of two nuclear power stations, each consisting of two units and able to generate 500 MW of power, for a total generating capacity of 1000 MW; the government decided that a minimum of 250 MW of electricity generated from nuclear reactors would be incorporated into the Third Five Year Plan (1961–1966).[45]
In February 1960, it was decided the first power plant would be erected in Western India, with locations in Rajasthan, near Delhi and near Madras noted for future commercial reactors.[46] In September, the Punjab government requested a nuclear power station for their state.[47] On 11 October 1960, the Indian government issued a tender for India's first nuclear power station nearTarapur, Maharashtra and consisting of two reactors, each generating around 150 MW of electricity and to be commissioned in 1965.[48] In August 1961, the Indian and Canadian governments agreed to conduct a joint study on building a Canada-India nuclear power plant inRajasthan; the reactor would be based on theCANDU reactor atDouglas Point and would generate 200 MW.[40] By this time, seven responses to India's global tender for the Tarapur power station had been received: three from the United States, two from the UK and one each from France and Canada.[49]
The agreement for India's first nuclear power plant at Rajasthan, RAPP-1, was signed in 1963, followed by RAPP-2 in 1966. These reactors contained rigid safeguards to ensure they would not be used for a military programme. RAPP-1 began operation in 1972. Due to technical problems, the reactor had to be downrated from 200 MW to 100 MW.[citation needed] The technical and design information were given free of charge byAtomic Energy of Canada Limited to India.[citation needed] The United States and Canadaterminated their assistance after the detonation of India's first nuclear explosion in 1974.
India's fast breeder reactor (FBR) program is a crucial part of the nation's strategy to expand its nuclear energy capabilities and ensure energy security. The centerpiece of this program is the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) located at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu. Developed by the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), the PFBR is a 500 MW sodium-cooled fast reactor designed to generate more fissile material than it consumes. It aims to produce plutonium-239 from uranium-238 using mixed oxide (MOX) fuel, which is a blend of plutonium-239 and uranium-238.[citation needed]
This technology is pivotal for India's long-term nuclear energy plans, as it allows the country to utilize its vast reserves of thorium and uranium more efficiently. By producing more fissile material than it consumes, the PFBR can significantly extend the life of nuclear fuel resources. Additionally, the success of the FBR program will contribute to India's energy security and sustainability goals, reducing reliance on imported fuels and supporting the country's growing energy needs.[citation needed]
After the successful commissioning of Kudankulam units 1 & 2, an agreement was made with Russia in June 2017 for units 5 & 6 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 250 million (3.85 million US$) per MW.[50][51] Earlier, India had also entered into an agreement with Russia in October 2016 for units 3 & 4 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 200 million (3.08 million US$) per MW.[50] In recent times, India has commissioned 3 indigenous reactors of theIPHWR-700 design, 2 at Kakrapar and one at the Rajasthan site. Another is under construction at the Rajasthan site. In 2022, construction began on two IPHWR -700 reactors at the Gorakhpur Haryana site. On 25 September 2025, Prime MinisterNarendra Modi laid the foundation stone of theMahi Banswara Atomic Power Plant, which will house 4 IPHWR units and is a part of India's fleet mode initiative.[citation needed]
In May 2025, it was reported that the Indian government may lift restrictions on private sector participation in the Indian nuclear industry during the 2025 Monsoon Session of Parliament.[52] It was also reported in May 2025 that the Indian government may allow foreign direct investment in the Indian nuclear industry, with foreign investments being capped at minority shareholding levels.[53]
India's domesticuranium reserves are small and the country is dependent on uranium imports to fuel its nuclear power industry. Since the early 1990s,Russia has been a major supplier of nuclear fuel to India.[54] Due to dwindling domestic uranium reserves,[55]electricity generation from nuclear power in India declined by 12.83% from 2006 to 2008.[56] Following awaiver from theNuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) in September 2008 which allowed it to commence international nuclear trade,[57] India has signed bilateral deals on civilian nuclear energy technology cooperation with several other countries, includingFrance,[58] theUnited States,[59] theUnited Kingdom,[60]Canada,[61] andSouth Korea.[62] India has also uranium supply agreements with Russia,[63][64]Mongolia,[65]Kazakhstan,[66]Argentina[67] andNamibia.[68] An Indian private company won a uranium exploration contract inNiger.[69]
In March 2011, large deposits of uranium were discovered in theTummalapalle belt inAndhra Pradesh and in theBhima basin inKarnataka by the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) of India. The Tummalapalle belt uranium reserves promise to be one of the world's top 20 uranium reserves. 44,000 tonnes of natural uranium have been discovered in the belt so far, which is estimated to have three times that amount.[70][71][72]The natural uranium deposits of theBhima basin has better grade of natural uranium ore, even though it is smaller than the Tummalapalle belt.
In recent years, India has shown increased interest in thorium fuels and fuel cycles because of large deposits ofthorium (518,000 tonnes) in the form ofmonazite in beach sands as compared to very modest reserves of low-gradeuranium (92,000 tonnes).[73]
Kazakhstan is the largest supplier of uranium to India providing 5,000 tonnes during 2015–19.[74] Over 15000 tonnes or uranium ore deposits are found in Rajasthan—Rohil, Sikar District[75]
As of 2016, India has signed civil nuclear agreements with 14 countries: Argentina, Australia, Canada, the Czech Republic, France, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Namibia, Russia, South Korea, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Vietnam.[76] The 48-nation NSG granted a waiver to India on 6 September 2008, allowing it to access civilian nuclear technology and fuel from other countries.[77] India is the only country with knownnuclear weapons which is not a party to theNon-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) but is still allowed to carry out nuclear commerce with the rest of the world.[78]
India and Mongolia signed a crucial civil nuclear agreement on 15 June 2009 for the supply of Uranium to India, during Prime MinisterManmohan Singh's visit to Mongolia, making it the fifth nation in the world to seal a civil nuclear pact with India. TheMoU on "development of cooperation in the field of peaceful uses ofradioactiveminerals and nuclear energy" was signed by senior officials in the department of atomic energy of the two countries.[79]
On 2 September 2009, India and Namibia signed five agreements, including one on civil nuclear energy which allows for the supply of uranium from the African country. This was signed during PresidentHifikepunye Pohamba's five-day visit to India in May 2009. Namibia is the fifth-largest producer of uranium in the world. The Indo-Namibian agreement on peaceful uses of nuclear energy allows for the supply of uranium and the setting up of nuclear reactors.[68] On 14 October 2009, India and Argentina signed an agreement in New Delhi on civil nuclear cooperation and nine other pacts to establish a strategic partnership. According to official sources, the agreement was signed by Vivek Katju, Secretary in the Ministry of External Affairs and Argentine foreign minister Jorge Talana. Taking into consideration their respective capabilities and experience in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, both India and Argentina have agreed to encourage and support scientific, technical and commercial cooperation for mutual benefit in this field.[80][81]
The Prime Ministers of India and Canada signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement inToronto on 28 June 2010 which when all steps are taken, will provide access for Canada's nuclear industry to India's expanding nuclear market and also fuel for India's reactors. Canada is one of theworld's largest exporters of uranium[82] and Canada'sheavy water nuclear technology is marketed abroad withCANDU-type units operating in India, Pakistan, Argentina, South Korea, Romania and China. On 6 November 2012, India and Canada finalised their 2010 nuclear export agreement, opening the way for Canada to begin uranium exports to India.[83]
On 16 April 2011, India and Kazakhstan signed an inter-governmental agreement for Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, which envisages a legal framework for the supply of fuel, construction and operation of atomic power plants, exploration and joint mining of uranium, exchange of scientific and research information, reactor safety mechanisms and use of radiation technologies for healthcare. PM Manmohan Singh visited Astana where a deal was signed. After the talks, the Kazakh PresidentNazarbaev announced that his country would supply India with 2100 tonnes of uranium and was ready to do more. Kazakhstan is the largest producer of uranium in the world. India and Kazakhstan have had civil nuclear cooperation since January 2009 when theNuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) and Kazakh nuclear companyKazAtomProm signed an MoU during the visit of Nazarbaev to Delhi. Under the contract, KazAtomProm supplies uranium which is used by Indian reactors.[84][85]
South Korea became the latest country to sign a nuclear agreement with India after it got the waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers' Group (NSG) in 2008. On 25 July 2011, India and South Korea signed a nuclear agreement, which would allow South Korea a legal foundation to participate in India's nuclear expansion programme, and to bid for constructing nuclear power plants in India.[86]
In 2014, India and Australia signed a civil nuclear agreement which allows the export of uranium to India. This was signed in New Delhi duringAustralian Prime MinisterTony Abbott's meeting with theIndian Prime MinisterNarendra Modi on 4 September 2014. Australia is the third-largest producer of uranium in the world. The agreement allows the supply of uranium for the peaceful generation of power for civil use in India.[87][88]
India's Prime Minister Narendra Modi and UK Prime Minister David Cameron signed Civil Nuclear Agreement on 12 November 2015.[89]
After theNuclear Suppliers Group agreed to allow nuclear exports to India, France was the first country to sign a civilian nuclear agreement with India, on 30 September 2008.[90] During the December 2010 visit of theFrench PresidentNicolas Sarkozy to India, framework agreements were signed for thesetting up of two third-generationEPR reactors of 1650 MW each atJaitapur,Maharashtra by the French companyAreva. The deal covers the first set of two of the six planned reactors and the supply of nuclear fuel for 25 years.[91] Construction has faced regulatory issues and difficulty in sourcing major components from Japan due to India not being a signatory to theNuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[92][93]
In April 2021, French group EDF made a binding offer to build six third-generation EPR nuclear reactors at the Jaitapur site, with an installed capacity of 9.6 gigawatts.[94]
In November 2016, Japan signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with India.Japanese nuclear plant builders saw this as a potential lifeline, given that domestic orders had ended following theFukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, and India is proposing to build about 20 new reactors over the next decade.[95]
Russia has an ongoing agreement of 1988 vintage with India regarding the establishment of twoVVER 1000 MW reactors (water-cooled water-moderated light water power reactors) atKoodankulam inTamil Nadu.[96] A 2008 agreement caters to the provision of an additional four third-generation VVER-1200 reactors of capacity 1170 MW each.[97] Russia has assisted in India's efforts to design a nuclear plant for itsnuclear submarine.[98] In 2009, Russia stated that it would not agree to curbs on the export of sensitive technology to India. A new accord signed in December 2009 with Russia gives India freedom to proceed with theclosed fuel cycle, which includesmining,preparation of the fuel for use in reactors, andreprocessing ofspent fuel.[99][100]
In October 2018, India and Russia signed an agreement to construct 6 nuclear reactors. Russian state-owned reactor manufacturer Rosatom stated that it would offer its third-generation VVER reactors. The agreement is not a firm contract, but rather an agreement to work toward a firm contract.[101]
The nuclear agreement with the United States led to India issuing aLetter of Intent for purchasing 10,000 MW from the US. However, liability concerns and a few other issues are preventing further progress on the issue. Experts say that India's nuclear liability law discourages foreign nuclear companies. This law gives accident victims the right to seek damages from plant suppliers in the event of a mishap. It has "deterred foreign players like General Electric and Westinghouse Electric, a US-based unit of Toshiba, with companies asking for further clarification on compensation liability for private operators."[102] On 5 October 2018, India and Russia signed an agreement to construct 6 Russian nuclear reactors in India.[101]
The PHWR fleet of India, in analysis byM.V. Ramana, was constructed, fuelled and continues to operate, close to the price of Indian coal power stations.[103]
As of 2009, India envisaged increasing the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 2.8% to 9% within 25 years.[104] As of 2023, nuclear power generated 3.1% of electricity in India, a share which is expected to rise with the commissioning of multipleIPHWR-700 andVVER-1000 reactors. Union Budget FY26 has aimed to launch Nuclear Energy Mission to focus on R&D of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), with the aim of making at least five indigenously developed SMRs, which shall also be known as Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs) operational by 2033. The said initiative aims to enhance domestic nuclear capabilities, promote private sector participation, and accelerate the deployment of advanced nuclear technologies such as Small Modular Reactors (SMRs). As of 25 July 2024, India’s nuclear capacity was 8180 MW.[105]
The Indian nuclear power industry is expected to undergo a significant expansion in the coming years, in part due to the passing of theU.S.-India Civil Nuclear Agreement. This agreement will allow India to carry out trade of nuclear fuel and technologies with other countries and significantly enhance its power generation capacity.[106] When the agreement goes through, India is expected to generate an additional 25 GW of nuclear power by 2020, bringing total estimated nuclear power generation to 45 GW.[107] Further, the Union Budget FY26 has proposed to amend the Atomic Energy Act and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act to realize goal of at least 100 GW of Nuclear Energy by 2047.[citation needed]
Risks related to nuclear power generation prompted Indian legislators to enact the 2010Nuclear Liability Act which stipulates that nuclear suppliers, contractors and operators must bear financial responsibility in case of an accident. The legislation addresses key issues such as nuclear radiation and safety regulations, operational control and maintenance management of nuclear power plants, compensation in the event of a radiation-leak accident, disaster clean-up costs, operator responsibility and supplier liability.[108] A nuclear accident like the 2011Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster would have dire economic consequences in heavily populated India, as did the 1984 Union CarbideBhopal disaster, considered among the world's worst industrial disasters.[109]
India has already been using imported enriched uranium for light-water reactors that are currently under IAEA safeguards, but it has developed other aspects of thenuclear fuel cycle to support its reactors.Development of select technologies has been strongly affected by limited imports.Use ofheavy water reactors has been particularly attractive for the nation because it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities.India has also done a great amount of work in the development of athorium centred fuel cycle.While uranium deposits in the nation are limited, there are much greater reserves of thorium and it could provide hundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel.The fact that thorium can theoretically be utilised in heavy water reactors has tied the development of the two. A prototype reactor that would burn Uranium-Plutonium fuel while irradiating a thorium blanket is under construction at Kalpakkam byBHAVINI.
Uranium used for theweapons programme has been separated from the power programme, using uranium from indigenous reserves. This domestic reserve of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium (approx 1% of global uranium reserves) is large enough to supply all of India's commercial and military reactors as well as supply all the needs of India's nuclear weapons arsenal.Currently, India's nuclear power reactors consume, at most, 478 tonnes of uranium per year.[110] Even if India were to quadruple its nuclear power output (and reactor base) to 20 GW by 2020, nuclear power generation would only consume 2000 tonnes of uranium per annum.Based on India's known commercially viable reserves of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium, this represents a 40–50 year uranium supply for India's nuclear power reactors (note withreprocessing andbreeder reactor technology, this supply could be stretched out many times over). Furthermore, the uranium requirements of India's Nuclear Arsenal are only one-fifteenth (1/15) of that required for power generation (approx. 32 tonnes), meaning that India's domestic fissile material supply is more than enough to meet all needs for its strategic nuclear arsenal. Therefore, India has sufficient uranium resources to meet its strategic and power requirements for the foreseeable future.[110]
Former Indian PresidentA. P. J. Abdul Kalam stated while he was in office that, "energy independence is India's first and highest priority. India needs to expand nuclear power generation in a big way usingthorium-based reactors.Thorium, a non-fissile material, is available in abundance in our country."[111] India has vastthorium reserves and quite limiteduranium reserves.[112][113]
The long-term goal of India's nuclear program has been to develop an advancedheavy-water thorium cycle. The first stage of this employs thepressurised heavy water reactors (PHWR) fuelled by natural uranium, andlight water reactors, which produceplutonium incidentally to their prime purpose of electricity generation.The second stage uses fast neutron reactors burning the plutonium with the blanket around the core having uranium as well as thorium, so that further plutonium (ideally high-fissile Pu) is produced as well as U-233.The Atomic Minerals Directorate (AMD) has identified almost 12 million tonnes ofmonazite resources (typically with 6-7% thorium).In stage 3,Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWR) would burn thorium-plutonium fuels in such a manner that breeds U-233 which can eventually be used as a self-sustaining fissile driver for a fleet of breeding AHWRs. An alternative stage 3 is molten salt breeder reactors (MSBR), which are believed to be another possible option for eventual large-scale deployment.[76]
In June 2014, Kudankulam-1 became the single largest power-generating unit in India (1000 MWe).[114][115]
In January 2021, India's atomic energy secretary K.N. Vyas announced that the 700-megawatt pressurised heavy water reactor at the Kakrapar Atomic Power Station would be the first of the 16 such units planned in the country.[116]
| Plant name | Unit No. | Type | Model | Status | Capacity (MW) | Begin building | Commercial operation | Closed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chutka | 1 | PHWR | IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | |||
| 2 | Planned | 630 | ||||||
| Gorakhpur | 1 | Under construction | 630 | 2022 | ||||
| 2 | Under construction | 630 | 2022 | |||||
| 3 | Planned | 630 | ||||||
| 4 | Planned | 630 | ||||||
| Kaiga | 1 | IPHWR-220 | Operational | 202 | 1 Sep 1989 | 16 Nov 2000 | ||
| 2 | Operational | 202 | 1 Dec 1989 | 16 Mar 2000 | ||||
| 3 | Operational | 202 | 30 Mar 2002 | 6 May 2007 | ||||
| 4 | Operational | 202 | 10 May 2002 | 20 Jan 2011 | ||||
| 5 | IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | |||||
| 6 | Planned | 630 | ||||||
| Kakrapar | 1 | IPHWR-220 | Operational | 202 | 1 Dec 1984 | 6 May 1993 | ||
| 2 | Operational | 202 | 1 Apr 1985 | 1 Sep 1995 | ||||
| 3 | IPHWR-700 | Operational | 630 | 22 Nov 2010 | 30 Jun 2023 | |||
| 4 | Operational | 630 | 22 Nov 2010 | 31 Mar 2024 | ||||
| Kudankulam | 1 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-412 | Operational | 932 | 31 Mar 2002 | 31 Dec 2014 | |
| 2 | Operational | 932 | 4 Jul 2002 | 31 Mar 2017 | ||||
| 3 | Under construction | 917 | 30 Jun 2017 | (2026) | ||||
| 4 | Under construction | 917 | 23 Oct 2017 | (2027) | ||||
| 5 | Under construction | 917 | 29 Jun 2021 | (2029) | ||||
| 6 | Under construction | 917 | 20 Dec 2021 | (2030) | ||||
| Madras | 1 | PHWR | IPHWR-220 | Operation suspended (under maintenance) | 205 | 1 Jan 1971 | 27 Jan 1984 | |
| 2 | Operational | 205 | 1 Oct 1972 | 21 Mar 1986 | ||||
| 3 | SFR | PFBR | Under construction | 490 | 23 Oct 2004 | (2026) | ||
| Mahi Banswara | 1 | PHWR | IPHWR-700 | Planned | 630 | (2031) | ||
| 2 | Planned | 630 | (2032) | |||||
| 3 | Planned | 630 | (2033) | |||||
| 4 | Planned | 630 | (2034) | |||||
| Narora | 1 | IPHWR-220 | Operational | 202 | 1 Dec 1976 | 1 Jan 1991 | ||
| 2 | Operational | 202 | 1 Nov 1977 | 1 Jul 1992 | ||||
| Rajasthan | 1 | CANDU | Shut down | 90 | 1 Aug 1965 | 16 Dec 1973 | 9 Oct 2004[117] | |
| 2 | Operational | 187 | 1 Apr 1968 | 1 Apr 1981 | ||||
| 3 | IPHWR-220 | Operational | 202 | 1 Feb 1990 | 1 Jun 2000 | |||
| 4 | Operational | 202 | 1 Oct 1990 | 23 Dec 2000 | ||||
| 5 | Operational | 202 | 18 Sep 2002 | 4 Feb 2010 | ||||
| 6 | Operational | 202 | 20 Jan 2003 | 31 Mar 2010 | ||||
| 7 | IPHWR-700 | Operational | 630 | 18 Jul 2011 | 15 Apr 2025 | |||
| 8 | Under construction | 630 | 30 Sep 2011 | (2026) | ||||
| Tarapur | 1 | BWR | BWR-1 (Mark 2) | Operation suspended (under maintenance) | 150 | 1 Oct 1964 | 28 Oct 1969 | |
| 2 | Operation suspended (under maintenance) | 150 | 1 Oct 1964 | 28 Oct 1969 | ||||
| 3 | PHWR | IPHWR-540 | Operational | 490 | 12 May 2000 | 18 Aug 2006 | ||
| 4 | Operational | 490 | 8 Mar 2000 | 12 Sep 2005 |
The details of the nuclear power generation capacity in the country are given below :[118]
| Fiscal Year | Nuclear electricity generation (GWh) | Capacity factor |
|---|---|---|
| 2008–09 | 14,921 | 50% |
| 2009–10 | 18,798 | 61% |
| 2010–11 | 26,472 | 71% |
| 2011–12 | 32,455 | 79% |
| 2012–13 | 32,863 | 80% |
| 2013–14 | 35,333 | 83% |
| 2014–15 | 37,835 | 82% |
| 2015–16 | 37,456 | 75% |
| 2016–17 | 37,674 | 80% |
| 2017–18 | 38,336 | 70% |
| 2018–19 | 37,813 | 70% |
| 2019–20 | 46,472 | 82% |
| 2020–21 | 43,029 | 81% |
| 2021–22 | 47,112 | 88% |
| 2022–23 | 45,855 | 87% |
| 2023–24 | 47,971 | 85% |
Following the March 2011Fukushima nuclear disaster inJapan, populations around proposed Indian NPP sites have launched protests that have found resonance around the country.[5] There have been mass protests against the French-backed 9,900 MWJaitapur Nuclear Power Project inMaharashtra and the Russian-backed 2,000 MWKoodankulam Nuclear Power Plant inTamil Nadu. TheGovernment of West Bengal initially refused permission to a proposed 6,000 MW facility near the town ofHaripur that intended to host six Russian reactors.[5][119] But after facing stiff resistance from locals, the proposed Nuclear Power Plant planned for Haripur was shifted toKavali inAndhra Pradesh.[120] Additionally, the Nuclear Power Plant planned for Kovvada, Srikakulam in Andhra Pradesh was shifted from Mithi Virdi inGujarat after locals in the Western state also showed resistance.[121]
APublic-interest litigation (PIL) was also filed against the government's civil nuclear program at theSupreme Court. The PIL specifically requested the "staying of all proposed nuclear power plants till satisfactory safety measures and cost-benefit analyses are completed by independent agencies".[6][122] However, the Supreme Court stated in 2011 that it was not an expert in the nuclear field to issue a direction to the government on the nuclear liability issue.[123]
India's nuclear power generation efforts are subject to many safeguards and oversight. Its environmental management system isISO 14001 certified, and it undergoes peer review by theWorld Association of Nuclear Operators, including a pre-start-up peer review.[citation needed]
TheGovernment of India, announced in the budget of FY25-26, the Nuclear Power Mission. It allocated a fund of ₹20,000 crores, for the development ofSMRs. The Government plans to commission five indigenous SMRs by 2033. Work is underway at theBhabha Atomic Research Centre for the Bharat small modular reactor design (BSMR) along with a 55MWe SMR and also a 5MWthHigh temperature gas cooled reactor.[124]
