TheNovgorod Republic (Russian:Новгородская республика,romanized: Novgorodskaya respublika), formally known asLord Novgorod the Great,[a][1] was acity-state that existed from the 12th to 15th centuries innorthwestern Russia, stretching from theGulf of Finland in the west to theUral Mountains in the east.[2][3] Its capital was the city ofNovgorod. The republic prospered as the easternmost trading post of theHanseatic League, and its people were much influenced by the culture of theByzantines, with theNovgorod school oficon painting producing many fine works. For much of its history, Novgorod was the center of Russian art and culture.[4]
Novgorod formally won its independence in 1136 after the Novgorodians deposed theirprince and theNovgorodveche began to elect and dismiss princes at its own will.[5][6] By the 13th century, the prince's power had greatly diminished.[7][8] Theveche also elected theposadnik, the chief executive of the city,[9] as well as thearchbishop of Novgorod, subject to approval by theRussian metropolitan.[b][12] In addition, thetysyatsky, originally the military commander,[13] was elected by theveche to serve the interests of the common people, eventually taking on judicial and commercial functions.[14] Novgorodian nobles known asboyars dominated theveche,[15] and the offices ofposadnik andtysyatsky remained in the hands of boyar families.[16] The boyars also gave funding to theushkuyniki, who contributed to the expansion of Novgorod's trade and colonies in theRussian North.[17][18]
From the mid-13th century, the Novgorodian throne remained in the hands of thegrand princes of Vladimir, a title that, by the 14th century, had been inherited by theprince of Moscow.[19] AsMoscow grew in power in the 15th century, Novgorod began to lose its autonomy.[20] In a 1471peace treaty with Moscow following theBattle of Shelon, Novgorod pledged allegiance to Moscow, with its system of government temporarily left intact.[21] The end of the republic came in 1478, whenIvan III dismantled theveche and imposed his direct rule on Novgorod as part ofhis campaign to annex the other Russian states.[22]
The state was calledNovgorod andNovgorod the Great (Russian:Великий Новгород,romanized: Veliky Novgorod), with the formSovereign Lord Novgorod the Great (Russian:Государь Господин Великий Новгород,romanized: Gosudar' Gospodin Veliky Novgorod) becoming common in the 15th century.[c] The termNovgorod the Great was also used to refer to all Novgorodians who enjoyed full rights.[24]Novgorod land andNovgorod volost usually referred to the land belonging to Novgorod.[25]
The termNovgorod Republic (Russian:Новгородская республика,romanized: Novgorodskaya respublika) itself is a much later term,[26] although the polity was described as a republic as early as in the beginning of the 16th century.[27] Soviet historians frequently used the termsNovgorod Feudal Republic andNovgorod Boyar Republic.[28][page needed]
The area ofNovgorod was populated by variousEast Slavic tribes that were constantly at war with one another for supremacy.[29][30] According to the 12th-centuryPrimary Chronicle, in 859, theVarangians began to levy tribute on these tribes, who chased out the Varangians three years later.[31][32] Due to their inability to govern and maintain peace, the tribes requested the return of the Varangians.[31][32] In 862, the Varangian brothersRurik,Sineus and Truvor were each "invited" to reign in Novgorod,Beloozero, andIzborsk, respectively, in what is nownorthwestern Russia.[32] As a result, Novgorod is traditionally viewed as the birthplace of theRussian monarchy in Russian historiography.[33][34]
ThePrimary Chronicle states that whenOleg the Wise conqueredKiev in 882, which traditionally marks the beginning ofKievan Rus', he ordered Novgorod to pay tribute to the Varangian princes in Kiev.[35] Although theChronicle states that "Oleg set himself up as prince in Kiev, and declared that it should be the mother of Russian cities," this account differs from what most Latin and Greek sources report for the next century.[36] For example, inDe Administrando Imperio, Novgorod is still presented as the capital of theRus', while Kiev is mentioned only as an outpost.[37]
The "Russian–Scandinavian cultural symbiosis" became prevalent following the establishment of the state ofRus'.[38] The Novgorodians were the first to reach the regions between theArctic Ocean andLake Onega. Even though there is no definitive account of the precise timing of their arrival at the northern rivers that flowed into the Arctic, there are chronicles which mention that one expedition reached thePechora River in 1032, and trading was established as early as 1096 with the tribes ofYugra.[39][40] TheChronicle mentions Novgorodians traveling "beyond the portage" as early as 1079.[41] They also traveled to Pomorye, the "summer [southern] coast" of the "Cold [White] Sea" in search of furs as well as fish and salt.[41] The historian George Lantzeff remarked that "in the beginning of Russian history, two Russian principalities, Novgorod andRostov-Suzdal, were engaged in exploring, conquering, exploiting, and colonizing the area west of theUral Mountains".[41]
From the 11th century, the Novgorodians asserted greater control over the determination of their rules, and rejected a politically dependent relationship to Kiev.[42][43] During this period, Novgorod developed its unique form of government, which consisted of theposadnichestvo (mayoralty) and theveche (popular assembly).[43]
Battle of the Novgorodians with the Suzdalians in 1170, fragment of a 1460 icon
The chronicles state that the Novgorodians paid tribute to thegrand prince of Kiev by 1113. Some time after this, the administration of the principality seemed to have matured. The Novgorodiantysyatsky andposadniki appointedboyars from the cities and collected revenues for administration in the territories it held. A charter from the 1130s mentioned 30 administrative posts in the territory of Novgorod, where revenues were collected regularly and sent as a tithe to the Novgorod bishop. Throughout the 12th century, Novgorod utilized theBaltic–Volga–Caspian trade route, not only for trading but also for bringing food from the fertileOka region to their city.[39]
On a number of occasions, the Novgorodian nobles refused to accept the prince sent from Kiev.[43] This struggle culminated in 1136, when the Novgorodiansrevolted [ru] and dismissed their princeVsevolod Mstislavich.[43] Over the next century and half, the Novgorodians were able to invite in and dismiss a number of princes, and although the rule of princes was not completely eliminated, their power had been greatly reduced, to the point that they were simply hired officials.[43] Princely power was already non-hereditary, and as a result, the prince was a symbol of the political union of Novgorod with the principality from which they were invited.[43] However, these invitations or dismissals were often based on who was the dominant prince.[44]
The Novgorodians sought to maintain the balance of power by alternating their invitations to princes from different regional centers, including the principalities of Rostov-Suzdal (laterVladimir-Suzdal) andKiev, whose prince remained the "eldest" among theRurikids until 1169.[45] Although the beginning of the republican period is traditionally to 1136, the development of republican institutions in Novgorod was a much more complicated process that began earlier and ended much later.[46] According to the historianJohn L. I. Fennell: "But it must not be imagined that Novgorod in the twelfth century and the first forty years of the thirteenth was in any way close to becoming a republic. Strong rulers could always oblige the city to accept their nominees... The fact is that Novgorod was always militarily vulnerable and whatever troops it could itself provide were never sufficient or competent enough to defend it".[47]
Rostov-Suzdal comprised the territory of the important Oka region and lands along the vital Sheksna River. This river lay in the Northern Volga tributary region. Whoever controlled the river was able to block food supplies causing a famine in Novgorod. Perhaps due to these fears, Novgorod led a failed invasion of Suzdal in 1134. They tried again and succeeded in 1149. Alternatively, Novgorod, in a bid to appease Suzdal, accepted some Suzdalians as rulers of Novgorod. Despite these events, Suzdal still blocked off trade to Novgorod twice and intercepted Novgorod's tributes.[39] Novgorod gradually became a major trade power in the Baltic following the establishment of permanent foreign trade centers.[46] Traders fromGotland arrived and founded the Gothic court around the turn of the 12th century.[46] Around the late 12th or early 13th century, thePeterhof was established.[48][49]
By 1156, Novgorod had won the right to choose its own bishop.[43][10] In 1165, the bishop was elevated to archiepiscopal status.[50] The election of the bishop was carried out by theveche, and thus, Novgorod had an almost independent religious administration, which allowed it to enter its golden age.[43][51] The chronicles describe the first election of thebishop of Novgorod by theveche:[52]
Archbishop Niphont died... that same year all the townspeople gathered together and decided to appoint as their bishop Arkadii, a man chosen by God; and all the people went and took him out of the Monastery of the Holy Virgin [in the presence of Prince] Mstislav Iur'evich, all the clergy of Holy Wisdom, all the town priests, and all the abbots and monks; and they installed him, entrusting him with the bishopric in the metropolitan in the court of Holy Wisdom, until there should be a metropolitan in Russia and then he should go be consecrated.[53]
In 1228, there was a failed Novgorodian campaign against theTavastians in present-day southernFinland, as reported in theNovgorod First Chronicle (NPL).[54] The Novgorodian troops were disaffected by princeYaroslav Vsevolodovich, a quarrel broke out within the army and the troops refused to fight.[54] In the same year, Yaroslav tried to militarily overrun the rebellious town of Pskov (possibly because its throne was vacant),[55] but the Pskovians closed their gates in time and denied him entry.[54] Yaroslav retreated to Novgorod, claimed no ill will towards Pskov, but raised another army supposedly for the purpose of attackingRiga (a stronghold of theLivonian Brothers of the Sword).[54] But the Pskovians distrusted him and allied with Riga instead, while the troop raising caused food prices in Novgorod to spike, stoking civil discontent against prince Yaroslav as well; opposition to the Suzdalian dynasty's power grew amongst citizens of both Pskov and Novgorod.[54] As they rejected support for his campaign against Riga, suspecting a ploy to seize Pskov along the way after the previous failed attempt, Yaroslav was forced to abandon his plans and disband his expensive army.[56] When a bad harvest exacerbated the famine,the Novogorodians rose in revolt against the prince, who fled with his family and supporters toPereslavl-Zalessky.[55] With the Suzdalian princely threat gone, the Pskovians sent the Livonian auxiliaries home, while theveche electedMichael of Chernigov as Novgorod's newknyaz in 1230.[55] The NPL notes that in subsequent years, Pskov remained allied with Riga and the Rigans, and later Dorpat (modernTartu) and Odenpäh (modernOtepää).[57] Meanwhile, Yaroslav Vladimirovich, a son of the previous Pskovian princeVladimir Mstislavich of Pskov [et] sought to leverage his family ties with the bishopsHermann of Dorpat andAlbert of Riga (died 1229) to gain his father's throne.[57]
The famine in Novgorod continued, and in 1230, another popular revolt erupted against supporters of the brand new prince Michael of Chernigov, includingtysiatskii Boris Negochevich.[58] The desperate Novgorodian people asked for Yaroslav of Suzdal to return, which he did at the end of 1230, but the famine got even worse in spring 1231, until German merchants sailing from overseas were able to import sufficient amounts of grain and flour to relieve the Republic's hunger.[59] In autumn 1231, Yaroslav took Novgorodian troops on a campaign to Chernigov against his rival Michael.[59] In 1232, there were anti-Yaroslav rebellions in Novgorod and Pskov, but only the latter was successful in chasing the Suzdalians out of town.[59]
In 1233, Boris Negochevich and other Novgorodian nobles joined forces with Yaroslav Vladimirovich (pretender-prince of Pskov) and some Sword Brothers, occupyingIzborsk in 1233, but they were soon expelled by the Pskovian army, while the pretender was captured, handed over toYaroslav of Suzdal and imprisoned inPereslavl-Zalessky.[60] In 1234, Yaroslav of Suzdal campaigned against the bishopric of Dorpat.[61] The 1234 peace agreement was based on that of 1224; it did not involve any territorial issues, but only a prisoner exchange and Dorpat's promise to stop supporting factions in Pskov and Novgorod that opposed Yaroslav of Suzdal.[62] Yaroslav went to Kiev in 1235, leaving his 15- or 16-year-old sonAleksandr Yaroslavich behind in Novgorod.[63]
Although theNorthern Crusades were aimed at paganBalts andFinns, rather than Orthodox Russians, several unsuccessful attempts were made to persuade Novgorod to convert to Catholicism after the capture ofTartu.[64] Novgorod also fought against the Crusaders for economic reasons, to protect their monopoly of the Karelian fur trade.[65] In Livonia, although the missionaries and Crusaders had attempted to establish peaceful relations with Novgorod, Livonian missionary and Crusade activity in Estonia caused conflicts with Novgorod, which had also attempted to subjugate, raid and convert the pagan Estonians.[66] The Estonians would also sometimes ally with the Russians against the Crusaders, since the eastern Baltic missions also constituted a threat to Russian interests and the tributary peoples.[67]
According to Russian sources,[68] during theNorthern Crusades, the Novgorodian princeAlexander Yaroslavich defeated the Swedes at theBattle of the Neva in July 1240, from which he received the sobriquetNevsky ("of the Neva").[69][70] Alexander then defeated German crusaders at theBattle on the Ice in 1242,[71] after the forces of the exiled prince of Pskov and men from theBishopric of Dorpat attackedPskov Land andVotia, a tributary of Novgorod.[72][73] This later led to him being depicted as an ideal ruler in chronicles such as theLife of Alexander Nevsky.[74] Novgorod was also spared by the Mongol armies during theMongol invasions after Alexander Nevsky agreed to pay tribute.[75] Historians such asJ. L. I. Fennell have called the proportions of Nevsky's victories as having been overblown; he also argued that there was no existence of a unified Western scheme of aggression against Russia and that Nevsky appeased the Mongols, while many Russian historians have argued that Nevsky was being wise, with cooperation with the Mongols being the only sensible option at the time which averted further tragedy.[76]
Tver,Moscow andLithuania fought over control of Novgorod and its enormous wealth from the 14th century. Upon receiving thejarlig forgrand prince of Vladimir in 1304,Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver sent his governors toNovgorod. A series of disagreements with Mikhail pushed Novgorod towards closer ties with Moscow during the reign ofYury. In part, Tver's proximity (the Tver principality was contiguous with Novgorod Land) threatened Novgorod. It was feared that a Tverian prince would annex Novgorod's territory, and thus weaken the republic. At the time, though, Moscow did not border Novgorod, and since the Muscovite princes were further afield, they were more acceptable as princes of Novgorod. They could come to Novgorod's aid when needed but would be too far away to meddle too much in the republic's affairs.[citation needed]
The city ofPskov, initially part of Novgorod Land, becamede facto independent as early as the 13th century after opening a trading post for merchants of theHanseatic League. Several princes such asVsevolod Mstislavich (d. 1138) andDovmont (d. 1299) reigned in Pskov without any deference to, or consultation with, the prince or other officials in Novgorod. Pskov won its formal independence in August 1348 afterMagnus IV of Sweden captured the key fortress ofOrekhov.[77] The Pskovites sent a small detachment and took advantage of the situation by only agreeing to accompany the Novgorodian army on the condition that Pskov would be formally granted its independence.[77] Novgorod sent an allied force to lay siege to the fortress and signed theTreaty of Bolotovo (1348) on the way to Orekhov.[78] As per the terms of the treaty, theposadniki of Novgorod no longer had any administrative or judicial function in Pskov and the law-courts of the archbishop of Novgorod would only be run by representatives chosen by the Pskovites.[79] However, thearchbishop of Novgorod continued to head the church in Pskov and kept the title of archbishop of Novgorod the Great and Pskov until 1589.[citation needed]
As Moscow grew in strength, however, the Muscovite princes became a serious threat to Novgorod.Ivan I,Simeon, and other princes sought to limit Novgorod's independence. In 1397, a critical conflict took place between Moscow and Novgorod, when Moscow annexed theDvina Lands along the course of theNorthern Dvina. These lands were crucial to Novgorod's well-being since much of the city's furs came from there.[80][81] This territory was returned to Novgorod the following year after Novgorod sent ambassadors to the grand prince of Moscow.[80]
In the 12th to 15th centuries, the Novgorod Republic expanded east and northeast. The Novgorodians explored the areas aroundLake Onega, along theNorthern Dvina, and coastlines of theWhite Sea. At the beginning of the 14th century, the Novgorodians explored theArctic Ocean, theBarents Sea, theKara Sea, and the West-Siberianriver Ob. The lands to the north of the city, rich withfur, seafauna and salt among others were of great economic importance to the Novgorodians, who fought a protracted series of wars with Moscow beginning in the late 14th century in order to keep these lands. Losing them meant economic and cultural decline for the city and its inhabitants. The ultimate failure of the Novgorodians to win these wars led to the downfall of the Novgorod Republic.[citation needed]
Novgorod supportedDmitry Shemyaka againstVasily Vasilievich in theMuscovite War of Succession (1425–1453). After Vasily II returned to throne, a war between Moscow and Novgorod took place, which ended after theTreaty of Yazhelbitsy was signed in 1456. The treaty marked the beginning of the fall of Novgorod's independence as it lost certain freedoms.[citation needed] Moscow began to gradually seize land in the northern territories that were formerly under Novgorod's control for the next decade and a half due to a desire for luxury furs in the area.[82] This led to a struggle with Novgorod for the Russianfur trade, and thus, an economic rivalry for fur, land and trade ports.[82]
Some Novgorodianboyars were opposed to Moscow as a result, while others pursued a pro-Muscovite policy in the hopes that good relations with Moscow would reduce disruption inNovgorod's trade; Novgorod was also dependent on the Russian lands to its southwest for important imports such as grain.[82] Some Novgorodians were also attracted to Moscow due to it being the center ofRussian Orthodoxy as opposed to Lithuania, whereCatholicism was dominant and its culture was being increasinglypolonized, though some Novgorodian clergy adopted a pro-Lithuanian policy for political reasons due to fears that embracing the grand prince of Moscow would eventually lead to the end of Novgorod's independence.[82] Most Novgorodian boyars had hoped to maintain the republic's independence since if Novgorod were to be conquered, the boyars' wealth would flow to the grand prince and Muscovite boyars, and the Novgorodians would fall into decline; most of them also did not earn enough to pay for war.[83]
By 1470, with the pro-Lithuanian faction being dominant,[82] the Novgorodianboyars questioned Ivan's sovereignty over Novgorod as their prince.[84] Novgorod negotiated with theGrand Duchy of Lithuania for a new prince to be sent over.[82] This led toMikhailo Olelkovich, a cousin of Ivan III, to be accepted.[85] According to tradition,Marfa Boretskaya, the wife of the posadnik Isak Boretsky, was the main proponent of an alliance with Poland–Lithuania to save the republic. According to this legend, Boretskaya invited the Lithuanian princeling Mikhailo Olelkovich and asked him to become her husband and the ruler of Novgorod. She also concluded an alliance withCasimir, the king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania. The prospects of changing allegiance in favor of the alliedKingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania caused a major commotion among the commoners. Janet Martin and Gail Lenhoff have recently argued that Boretskaya was scapegoated, probably by Archbishop Feofil (r. 1470–1480) in order to shift the blame from him for his betrayal of the terms of the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy, which forbade Novgorod from conducting foreign affairs without grand princely approval.[86] While the extent of Boretskaya's role in the Lithuanian party is probably exaggerated, Novgorod did indeed try to turn to the king of Poland. A draft treaty, allegedly found among the loot after the Battle of Shelon River, was drawn up between Casimir and the Novgorodians.[87]
The Muscovite authorities saw Novgorod's behavior as a repudiation of theTreaty of Yazhelbitsy (1456), and went to war against the city. The army of Moscow won a decisive victory in theBattle of Shelon River in July 1471, which severely limited Novgorod's freedom to act thereafter, although the city maintained its formal independence. For the next six years, pro-Moscow and anti-Moscow factions in Novgorod competed with one another.[88] Ivan III visited Novgorod several times during this period, persecuting a number of pro-Lithuanian boyars and confiscating their lands. In 1478, Ivan III sent his army to take direct control of the city. He abolished the local government, including theveche, and replaced it with hisnamestnik, or governor, who directly reported to him.[89][21] Ivan III also ordered the removal of theveche bell to Moscow, which signified the end of the republican government.[90] After the takeover, Ivan took more than four-fifths of Novgorod's land: half for himself and the rest for his allies.[91] The formal annexation of Novgorod marked a major step in the unification of Russia around Moscow;[92][93] Ivan III later adopted the title ofsovereign of all Russia.[94]
Novgorod's boyars found no defenders among the commoners, who preferred Ivan III, highlighting the social conflict of the time.[95][96] In the decades after annexation, the city of maintained its own distinct currency and local political life continued the traditions of the republic in many ways.[97] TheNovgorod Chronicle, which had been critical of Ivan III before the fall of the republic, described the conquest in its aftermath, justifying it on the grounds of purported conversion of Novgorodians to the Catholic faith:[98]
Thus did Great Prince Ivan advance with all his host against his domain of Novgorod because of the rebellious spirit of its people, their pride and conversion to Latinism. With a great and overwhelming force did he occupy the entire territory of Novgorod from frontier to frontier, inflicting on every part of it the dread powers of his fire and sword.
A fragment of the iconPraying Novgorodians depicting the Kuzmin boyars, 1467
Thecity-state of Novgorod had developed procedures of governance that held a large measure of democratic participation far in advance of the rest of Europe.[99] The city concluded a contract with the prince, who promised to uphold the city's ancient traditions, and the practice of inviting and dismissing princes from other principalities became firmly embedded by the 13th century.[100] From this point on, medieval Russia was a loose conglomerate of principalities—ruled by princes from the same dynasty—alongside two republics: Novgorod and Pskov.[100][101]
The precise constitution of the medieval Novgorodian republic is uncertain, although traditional histories have created the image of a highly institutionalized network ofveches (public assemblies) and a government ofposadniki (burgomasters),tysyatskie ("thousandmen"; originally the head of the town militia, but later a judicial and commercial official), other members of aristocratic families, and thearchbishops of Novgorod. Theveche, although dating to the early Kievan period, became a more structured institution, and it remained the center of Novgorod's political life.[102] In theory, supreme power belonged to theveche.[103]
During the 13th and 14th centuries, theRusskaya Pravda was the basic source of written law in Novgorod.[104] TheNovgorod Judicial Charter is the most comprehensive legislative document produced in Novgorod.[104] It served as the legal code of the Novgorod Republic from 1440. The latest version was supplemented in 1471 under the auspices of Ivan III and his sonIvan Ivanovich.[105] The Novgorod Judicial Charter, along with thePskov Judicial Charter, were later used for Ivan III'sSudebnik of 1497 which served as the legal code for the entire Russian state.[106]
Soviet-eraMarxist scholarship frequently described the political system of Novgorod as a "feudal republic", placing it within theMarxist historiographic periodization.[28][page needed] Some historians have described Novgorod's political system as a democratic republic, as all free people in the city were able to participate inveche meetings.[107] Other historians have instead described the political system as anoligarchy due to the dominance of rich merchant families in politics.[108][109][110][111]Valentin Yanin, one of the leading specialists on the history of Novgorod, described its political system as a "boyar republic", citing the dominance of elites in theveche and other positions, especially after the 13th century.[107] The strong class divide also undermined the democratic character of the government.[103]
Some scholars argue that the archbishop was the head of theexecutive branch of the government, although it is difficult to determine the exact competence of the various officials. It is possible that there was aCouncil of Lords (Russian:Совет Господ) that was headed by the archbishop and met in the archiepiscopal palace (and in theChamber of Facets after 1433).[112][113] Within the Russian Church, the archbishop was the most senior prelate after the metropolitan and he supervised the largestdiocese.[114][115] Novgorod was also the only archbishopric until the late 14th century.[114]
The executives of Novgorod, at least nominally, were always the princes of Novgorod, invited by Novgorodians from neighboring states, even though their power waned in the 13th and early 14th centuries.[116][117] It is unclear if the archbishop of Novgorod was the true head of state or chief executive of the Novgorod Republic, but in any case, he remained an important town official. In addition to overseeing the church in Novgorod, he headed embassies, oversaw certain court cases of a secular nature, and carried out other secular tasks. However, the archbishops appear to have worked with the boyars to reach a consensus and almost never acted alone. The archbishop was not appointed, but elected by Novgorodians, and approved by theRussian metropolitan.[118][119][11][120] The archbishops were probably the richest single land-owners in Novgorod,[121] and they also made money off court fees, fees for the use of weights and measures in the marketplace, and through other means.[122][123]
The Veche in the Republic of Novgorod, painting byVasily Khudyakov, 1861
Another important executive was theposadnik of Novgorod, who chaired theveche, co-chaired courts together with the prince, oversaw tax collection and managed current affairs of the city. Most of the prince's major decisions had to be approved by theposadnik. In the mid-14th century, instead of oneposadnik, theveche began electing six. These sixposadniki kept their status for their lifetimes, and each year elected among themselves astepennoy posadnik.Posadniki were almost invariably boyars – the city's highest aristocracy.[124] The precise makeup of theveche is also uncertain, although it appears to have comprised members of the urban population, as well as of the free rural population. Whether it was a democratic institution or one controlled by the boyars has been hotly debated. Theposadniki,tysyatskiye, and even the bishops and archbishops of Novgorod,[d] were often elected or at least approved by theveche.[125]
Theveche tradition convinced Novgorodians that they had the right to be consulted on important issues, though in practice, theposadniki came from a few rich merchant families. In the early years of the republic, the prince andposadnik shared power until the prince's power was gradually restricted, while the archbishop of Novgorod increasingly played the role of head of state, particularly during times of feuds.[126] Just before 1300, a series of reforms further curtailed the prince's powers within the local administration while those of the archbishop rose. TheCouncil of Lords (Russian:Совет господ,romanized: Sovet gospod) was also formed, and boyar families from each district were represented, typically by formerposadniki, with eachposadnik beginning to hold office for only one year. As feuds continued to grow, the structure was again changed so that each district had its ownposadnik, with the number ofposadniki increasing to 24 in 1423, though this failed to achieve stability, and feuds continued until the last days of independence.[126]
For most of the republic's history, the lowest free class had a right to take part inveche assemblies.[127] The concept of thechyornye liudi, orchern, was broad, and so could be used to refer to free Novgorodians who did not belong to the nobility.[127] Thus, the free townspeople (gorodovye liudi) consisted of several privileged groups, includingboyars, clergymen, merchants, thechern, and so on.[128] According to one estimate, no more than 5,000 to 6,000 men had the right to take part inveche assemblies by the 15th century, and this figure may be no more than 3,000 to 4,000 in earlier periods.[128] Although there was no legal restriction on who could participate inveche assemblies, the rhetoric of fraternal unity only applied to free male citizens who resided in the city of Novgorod and the rural population were generally excluded from Novgorodian politics.[e][130] The introductory clause of theNovgorod Judicial Charter, issued in the 15th century, reflects this:[129]
This was decided by the burgomasters of Novgorod, and the thousandmen of Novgorod, and boyars, andzhitii liudi [a kind of Novgorodian middle class, literally 'well-to-do people'], and merchants, andchyornye liudi [literally, 'black people', 'black' being a word for low-class], all fivekontsy [boroughs of Novgorod, literally 'ends'], all Sovereign Novgorod the Great at theveche at Yaroslav's court.[129]
Tradespeople and craftsmen also participated in the political affairs of Novgorod. Traditional scholarship argues that they were organized into fivekontsy ("ends" in Russian) – i.e., the boroughs of the city they lived in; each end was then organized by the streets in which they lived. The ends and streets often bore names indicating that certain trades were concentrated in certain parts of the city (there was a Carpenter's End and a Potters' End, for example). The merchants were organised into associations, of which the most famous were those of wax traders (calledIvan's Hundred) and of the merchants engaged in overseas trade.[131]
Like much of the rest of Novgorod's medieval history, the precise composition of these organizations is uncertain. It is quite possible that the "ends" and "streets" were simply neighborhood administrative groups rather than guilds or "unions". Street organizations were known to build churches in their neighborhoods and to have buried the dead of their neighborhoods during outbreaks of the plague, but beyond that their activities are uncertain.
"Streets" and "ends" may have taken part in political decision-making in Novgorod in support of certain boyar factions or to protect their interests. Merchant "elders" are also noted in treaties and other charters, but only about a hundred of these charters exist. A half dozen date from the 12th century, while most are from after 1262. Thus, it is difficult to determine Novgorod's political structure due to the paucity of sources.[132][page needed]
The prince, while his status in Novgorod was not inheritable and his power was much reduced, remained an important figure in Novgorodian life. Of around 100 princes of Novgorod, many, if not most, were invited in or dismissed by the Novgorodians. At least some of them signed acontract called aryad (Russian:ряд), which protected the interests of Novgorodian boyars and laid out the prince's rights and responsibilities. The ryads that have been preserved in archives describe the relationship of Novgorod with twelve invited princes: five of them from Tver, four from Moscow, and three from Lithuania.[133][page needed] From the mid-13th century, only thegrand prince of Vladimir (later thegrand prince of Moscow) held the Novgorodian throne.[134][135][8] Although a number of Lithuanian princes were invited, they did not occupy the throne; instead, they were given certain territories.[8]
First and foremost among the prince's functions, he was a military leader. He also patronized churches in the city and held court, although it was often presided over by hisnamestnik or lieutenant when he was personally absent from the city. Theposadnik had always to be present in the court and no court decision could be made without his approval. Also, without the approval of theposadnik, the prince could neither give out Novgorod lands nor issue laws.[136] Besides, the prince could not own land in Novgorod and could not himself collect taxes from the territory of Novgorod. He lived from money given to him by the city.[137] By the end of the 13th century, the authority of the prince was greatly weakened in favor of republican legal proceedings.[8] As a result, the suzerainty of the grand prince was only nominal.[8]
According to several ryads, the prince could not extradite or prosecute a Novgorodian outside of Novgorod Land.[138] The princes had two residences, one on the Marketplace (calledYaroslav's Court), and another inRurikovo Gorodische several miles south of theTrade Side of the city.
The administrative division of Novgorod Republic is not definitely known; it was divided into severaltysyachi (Russian:тысячи,lit. 'thousands') in the core lands of the country, andvolosti (Russian:волости) in lands in the east and north that were being colonized or just paid tribute.[139] The most importantvolost was theDvina Land,[103] which was administered by anamestnik appointed by Novgorod.[140]
The city of Novgorod and its vicinity, as well as a few other towns, were not part of any of those. The metropolitan area was surrounded by five "fifths" (pyatiny) adjoining or almost adjoining the territory of the city.[103]Pskov achieved autonomy from Novgorod in the 13th century; its independence was confirmed by theTreaty of Bolotovo, traditionally dated to 1348.[104] Several other towns had special status as they were owned jointly by Novgorod and one of the neighbouring states.
The Novgorod Republic was the largest of the Russian states in terms of area until it was surpassed by Moscow following its annexation of other independent principalities in the 15th century. The Novgorod Republic occupied thenorthwest andnorth ofEuropean Russia, as well as the eastern part ofFinland. To the east, it was bordered by thePrincipality of Tver and to the west, it was bordered by Lithuania as well as various Baltic powers, including theTeutonic Order and the bishoprics ofDorpat andCourland as well as theHanseatic cities ofRiga andReval.[141][103]
The marketplace in Novgorod, painting byApollinary Vasnetsov, 1908–1909Hunting and beekeeping in the forests of Novgorod, 1360
The economy of the Novgorod Republic includedfarming andanimal husbandry (e.g., the archbishops of Novgorod and others raised horses for the Novgorodian army), whilehunting,beekeeping, andfishing were also widespread. In most of the regions of the republic, these different "industries" were combined with farming.Iron was mined on the coast of theGulf of Finland.Staraya Russa and other localities were known for theirsaltworks.Flax andhop cultivation were also of significant importance. Countryside products, such as furs,beeswax,honey, fish,lard, flax, and hops, were sold on the market and exported to other Russian cities or abroad. Scholars have argued that Novgorod played a crucial role in revitalizing the Russian economy in the 14th century, especially by importing silver from the rest of Europe.[142]
The real wealth of Novgorod came from the fur trade.Hanseatic merchants were particularly attracted to the Russian trade due to its vast resources of furs and beeswax, with Novgorod being the leading supplier of furs.[143] As one of the westernmost Russian cities, Novgorod was the mainentrepôt for trade between Rus' and northwestern Europe as it was located at the eastern end of the Baltic trade network established by the Hanseatic League. From Novgorod's northeastern lands ("The Lands Beyond the Portages", as they were called in the chronicles), the area stretching north of LakesLadoga andOnega, and extending up to theWhite Sea and east to theUral Mountains,[144][page needed] had so much fur that medieval travel accounts tell of furry animals raining from the sky.[145]
The Novgorodian merchants traded with Swedish, German, and Danish cities. In early years, the Novgorodians sailed the Baltic themselves (several incidents involving Novgorodian merchants inGotland andDenmark are reported in theNovgorodian First Chronicle). Orthodox churches for Novgorodian merchants have beenexcavated on Gotland. Likewise, merchants from Gotland had their own St. Olaf church and trading house in Novgorod. However, the Hanseatic League disputed the right of Novgorodian merchants to carry out sea trade independently and to deliver cargoes to Western European ports by their own ships. Silver, cloth, wine and herring were imported from Western Europe.[131]
The amount of fur, especially squirrel and other relatively cheap furs, that Novgorod supplied to Hanseatic merchants was considerable. The Lübeck company of Wittenborg exported between 200,000 and 500,000 Lübeck marks from Novgorod to Livonia in the 1350s. Anna Khoroshkevich assumed that exports increased throughout the 14th century and was at its height in the beginning of the 15th century, but by the second half of the century, Novgorod suffered from the effects of exhaustion of its resources with hunting grounds moving considerably further north and Muscovite merchants accruing the main profit of the shift.[146]
In spite of unfavorable natural conditions, Novgorod's rural population was dependent upon agriculture and stock-rearing, while hunting and fishing were also important. The agricultural basis was also insecure, as the land passed almost fully into the hands of ruling boyars and clergy, with only a small area belonging to merchants. The peasants of Novgorod also paid dues to their lords in the products of agriculture, fishing, forestry, and stock-rearing.[143]
Foreign coins and silver were used as a currency before Novgorod started minting its ownnovgorodka coins in 1420, also known as the Novgorodiandenga.[147][148] The Hanseatickontor in Novgorod, called thePeterhof, was dominated byLübeck until the 15th century, when it was replaced by theLivonian cities.[49] Thekontor remained open until it was finally closed in 1494 byIvan III.[49] It was an attempt to reduce Hanseatic influence on Russian trade, as Ivan sought to open as many outlets for foreign trade as possible, which included his fortress ofIvangorod in the Baltic.[149] Although thekontor was briefly re-opened in 1514, the Hanseatic League never regained its former monopoly.[150]
The free population of Novgorod consisted of nobles known asboyars, thezhityi lyudi ("well-to-do people"), and thechyornye lyudi orchern ("black people").[151] In official documents, such as treaties, these people are mentioned separately.[151] The boyars stood at the top, while the rest of the population were divided into "greater" and "lesser" people.[152] A merchant (kupets) could be found in different groups as the merchants did not constitute a social class, but they did constitute a special category of people with their own social hierarchy.[152] The clergy, priests, monks and nuns also constituted a special category of people, with the archbishop at the top, followed by thearchimandrite and then other abbots and lower clergy.[153] The vast majority of the rural population consisted of free peasants, while the rest consisted of peasants with a different status, clergy, merchants, craftsmen, soldiers, and so on.[140]
The boyars and merchants were perceived as distinct categories of people due to the role they played in Novgorod's politics and economy.[154] It is unknown what exactly made someone a boyar, aside from having a father who was one.[155] Although all free citizens could participate inveche meetings, which usually elected theposadniki andtysyatskiye, such procedures almost always led to the appointment of individuals from the boyar class.[155] This suggests that the custom was to limit appointments to that class or that the boyars held significant influence in theveche and could thus ensure that one of their own was elected.[155] Traditional Soviet scholarship viewed the boyars as the ruling class of a feudal society, and so boyar land ownership was seen as constituting the foundation of their position.[155] The historianValentin Yanin concluded that the boyar class was a closed group of families descended from a small number of ancestors.[156]
Novgorodians who enjoyed full rights constituted the city'skontsy (lit.'ends'), which served as both local administrative divisions and communities.[129] The established view is that there were originally threekontsy.[129] Historians generally believe that the city of Novgorod developed from three villages, according to the hypothesis ofValentin Yanin.[129] In the 12th and 13th centuries, two morekontsy appeared, and in total, there were fivekontsy until the end of Novgorod's independence.[157] As a result, Novgorodian townsmen may be viewed as belonging primarily to thekontsy.[157] Those who enjoyed full rights may be compared to "free citizens", "full members", or simply "the people" of Western European communes.[157] Although they may be referred to as "brothers", a well-defined social hierarchy existed.[f][157]
More than half of all privately owned lands in Novgorod had been concentrated in the hands of some 30–40 noble boyar families by the 14th and 15th centuries. These vastestates served as material resources, which secured political supremacy of the boyars. TheCathedral of St. Sophia – the mainecclesiastic establishment of Novgorod – was their chief rival in terms oflandownership. Itsvotchiny were located in the most economically developed regions of Novgorod Land. TheYuriev Monastery,Arkazhsky Monastery,Antoniev Monastery and some other privileged monasteries are known to have been big landowners. There were also thezhityi lyudi (Russian:житьи люди), who owned less land than the boyars, and unprivileged smallvotchina owners calledsvoyezemtsy (своеземцы, or private landowners). The most common form oflabor exploitation – the system ofmetayage – was typical for the afore-mentioned categories of landowners. Theirhousehold economies were mostly serviced by slaves (kholops), whose number had been constantly decreasing. Along with the metayage, monetary payments also gained significant importance by the second half of the 15th century.
Some scholars argue that the feudal lords tried to legally tie down thepeasants to their land. Certain categories of feudally dependent peasants, such asdavniye lyudi (давние люди),polovniki (половники),poruchniki (поручники), anddolzhniki (должники), were deprived of the right to leave their masters. The boyars and monasteries also tried to restrict other categories of peasants from switching their feudal lords. However, until the late 16th century peasants could leave their land in the weeks preceding and coming afterGeorge's Day in Autumn. Marxist scholars such as Aleksandr Khoroshev often spoke of a class struggle in Novgorod. There were some 80 major uprisings in the republic, which often turned into armed rebellions. The most notable among these took place in 1136, 1207, 1228–1229, 1270, 1418, and 1446–1447. The extent to which these were based on "class struggle" is unclear. Many were between various boyar factions.
Novgorod's merchants were also a well-defined group and organized into several guilds.[159] There was also a separate group of important merchants, orposhlye kuptsy.[159] For instance, the guild of St. John, which united the merchants engaged in domestic Russian trade, had privileged members who paid a high entrance fee of 50 silvergrivny, and this allowed them and their successors to have hereditary membership.[152] The two elders of the guild were also chosen from this group.[152] A guild's income came from entrance fees and trade taxes.[160]
Throughout the republican period, thearchbishop of Novgorod was the head of the Orthodox church in the city. TheFinnic population of Novgorod Land underwent Christianization. The sect of thestrigolniki spread to Novgorod from Pskov in the middle of the 14th century, with its members renouncing ecclesiastic hierarchy, monasticism and sacraments of priesthood, communion, repentance and baptism, before they disappeared by the early 15th century.[161][162] Another sect, known as theJudaizers by its opponents, appeared in Novgorod in the second half of the 15th century and subsequently enjoyed support at the court in Moscow, before ultimately they were persecuted and several councils of the Russian Church condemned them.[163]
Like other Russian states, the military of Novgorod consisted of a levy and the prince's retinue (druzhina).[164] While potentially all free Novgorodians could be mobilised, in reality the number of recruits depended on the level of danger faced by Novgorod. The professional formations included the retinues of the archbishop and prominentboyars, as well as the garrisons of fortresses.[165] Firearms were first mentioned in 1394,[166] and in the 15th century, fortress artillery was used,[167] and cannons were installed on ships.[168]
During the era ofKievan Rus', Novgorod was a trade hub at the northern end of both theVolga trade route and theroute from the Varangians to the Greeks along theDnieper River system. A vast array of goods were transported along these routes and exchanged with local Novgorod merchants and other traders. The merchants ofGotland retained the Gothic Court trading house well into the 12th century. Later, German merchantmen also established trading houses in Novgorod. Scandinavian royalty would intermarry with Russian princes and princesses.[169]
After theEast–West Schism, Novgorod struggled from the beginning of the 13th century against Swedish, Danish, and German crusaders. During theSwedish–Novgorodian Wars, the Swedes invaded lands where some of the population had earlierpaid tribute to Novgorod. The Germans had been trying to conquer theBaltic region since the late 12th century. Novgorod went to war 26 times with Sweden and 11 times with theLivonian Brothers of the Sword. The Germanknights, along with Danish and Swedish feudal lords, launched a series of uncoordinated attacks in 1240–1242. Russian sources mention that a Swedish army was defeated in theBattle of the Neva in 1240.[170] The Baltic German campaigns ended in failure after theBattle on the Ice in 1242. After the foundation of thecastle ofVyborg in 1293 the Swedes gained a foothold inKarelia. On August 12, 1323, Sweden and Novgorod signed theTreaty of Nöteborg, regulating their border for the first time.
The Novgorod Republic was saved from the direct impact of theMongol invasions as it was not conquered by the Mongols.[171] In 1259, Mongol tax-collectors and census-takers arrived in the city, leading to political disturbances and forcingAlexander Nevsky to punish a number of town officials (by cutting off their noses) for defying him as thegrand prince of Vladimir (soon to be the khan's tax-collector in Russia) and his Mongol overlords.[172][173]
The Novgorod Republic was famous for its high level of culture compared to the rest of Russia, particularly in relation to its icons, which were produced prolifically.[174] As the wealthiest center, the city used its wealth to paint hundreds of icons, making it the cultural center of Russia for much of its history.[175] Not only would prominent boyar families commission the creation of icons, but artists also had the backing of wealthy merchants and members of the strong artisan class.[176] Icons became so prominent in Novgorod that by the end of the 13th century, a citizen did not have to be particularly rich to buy one; in fact, icons were often produced as exports as well as for churches and homes.[177] However, scholars today have managed to find and preserve only a small, random assortment of icons made from the 12th century to the 14th century in Novgorod.[177]
The icons that do remain show a mixture of a traditional Russian style,Palaeologus-Byzantine style (prominent previously in Kiev), andEuropean Romanesque andGothic style.[178] The artists of Novgorod, and their audience, favored saints who provided protection mostly related to the economy. The Prophet Elijah was the lord of thunder who provided rain for the peasants' fields.Saint George,Saint Blaise, and SaintsFlorus and Laurus all provided some manner of protection over the fields or the animals and herds of the peasants.Saint Paraskeva Pyatnitsa andSaint Anastasia both protected trade and merchants.Saint Nicholas was the patron of carpenters and protected travelers and the suffering. Both Saint Nicholas and the Prophet Elijah also offer protection from fires. Fires were commonplace in the fields and on the streets of the city.[179] Depictions of these saints retained popularity throughout the entire reign of the republic. But in the beginning of the 14th century another icon became prominent in the city: theVirgin of Mercy. This icon commemorates the appearance of theVirgin Mary toAndrew the Fool. During this appearance, Mary prays for humankind.[180]
Novgorod lost not only its political authority after 1478 but also its artistic authority, resulting in a more uniform method for iconography being established throughout Russia.[181] TheNovgorod school continued to develop under the influence of theMoscow school until the 16th century.[182]
Medieval walls of theNovgorod Detinets from the late 15th century. The Kokui tower (left) dates from the 17th century; its name is of Swedish origin.
TheVolkhov River divided the Novgorod Republic into two-halves. The commercial side of the city, which contained the main market, rested on one side of the Volkhov. TheCathedral of St. Sophia and the ancient Kremlin rested on the other side of the river.[142] The cathedral and Kremlin were surrounded by a solid ring of city walls, which included a bell tower. Novgorod was filled with and surrounded by churches and monasteries.[183] The city was overcrowded because of its large population of 30,000 people. The wealthy (boyar families, artisans, and merchants) lived in large houses inside the city walls, and the poor used whatever space they could find.[142] The streets were paved with wood and were accompanied by a wooden water-pipe system, a Byzantine invention to protect against fire.[142]
TheByzantine style (famous for large domes) and theEuropean Romanesque style influenced the architecture of Novgorod.[184] A number of rich families commissioned churches and monasteries in the city. About 83 churches, almost all of which were built in stone, operated during this period.[185] Two prominent styles of churches existed in the Republic of Novgorod. The first style consisted of a single apse with a slanted (lopastnyi) roof. This style was standard throughout Russia during this period. The second style, the Novgorodian style, consisted of three apses and had roofs with arched gables. This second style was prominent in the early years of the Republic of Novgorod and also in the last years of the Republic, when this style was revitalized to make a statement against the rising power of Moscow.[186] The inside of the churches contained icons, woodcarvings, and church plates.[187] The first knownone-day votive church was built in Novgorod in 1390 to ward off a pandemic, several others were built in the city until the mid-16th century. As they were built in one day, they were made of wood, small in size and simple in design.[188][189]
Many birch-bark documents have been found in Novgorod attesting to a high level of literacy among Novgorodians of different social classes
Chronicles are the earliest kind of literature known to originate in Novgorod, the oldest one being theNovgorod First Chronicle.[45] Other genres appear in the 14th and 15th centuries: travel diaries (such as the account ofStephen of Novgorod's travel to Constantinople for trade purposes), legends about localposadniki, saints and Novgorod's wars and victories.[190] The events of manybyliny – traditional Russian oral epic poems – take place in Novgorod. Their protagonists include a merchant and adventurerSadko and daredevilVasily Buslayev.
Over one thousandbirch bark manuscripts have been discovered in the city of Novgorod during archaeological excavations since the 1950s. Archeologists and scholars estimate that as much as 20,000 similar texts still remain in the ground and many more burned down during numerous fires.[191] As the manuscripts were written by laypeople in the vernacular language and consist of casual notes, it has been suggested that there was widespread literacy across large segments of urban society in medieval Russia; according to one estimate, 20% of the urban male population in Russian city-states were literate around the mid-13th century.[192] Among the most notable manuscripts discovered were those written by a boy calledOnfim, who lived in Novgorod in the 13th century.[193]
Novgorodian citizens from all class levels, from boyars to peasants and artisans to merchants, participated in writing these texts. Even women wrote a significant amount of the manuscripts.[191] This collection of birch-bark texts consists of religious documents, writings from the city's archbishops, business messages from all classes, and travelogues, especially of religious pilgrimages. The citizens of Novgorod wrote in a realistic and businesslike fashion. In addition to the birch-bark texts, archeologists also found the oldest surviving Russian manuscript in Novgorod: three wax tablets with Psalms 67, 75, and 76, dating from the first quarter of the 11th century.[194] The spread of literacy in Novgorod coincided with its rise as a power and the expansion of itshinterland.[195] The decline in birch bark writing after the 15th century can be explained by the decrease in the city's political importance, the introduction of paper, as well as the creation of a sewer system in the 17th–18th centuries, which caused all organic layers in the city from the 16th century onward to decay.[195]
Old Novgorodian, a historical variety of Russian, was spoken in Novgorod.[195]Michael Clanchy draws a distinction between Novgorod and Western Europe, where administrative literacy was promoted by the state: "In the Russian lands written forms of the vernacular were used by both clergy and laity and the emphasis on the agency of central government (as in Anglo-Norman England) was much less".[195]Church Slavonic was restricted to religious texts, although the language could be found in certain secular texts, for example in birch bark manuscripts written by monks.[195]
^Russian:Господин Великий Новгород,romanized: Gospodin Veliky Novgorod.
^Theveche chose its bishop for the first time in 1156.[10] From 1165, the bishop of Novgorod became known as the archbishop of Novgorod.[11]
^AlsoLord Novgorod the Great (Russian:Господин Великий Новгород,romanized: Gospodin Velikiy Novgorod).[23]
^Starting from 1156, elevated to archiepiscopal status in 1165.[47]
^The chronicles mention that representatives of the two most important suburbs,Pskov andLadoga, took part inveche assembles in 1132 and 1136; however, there is no further evidence of the suburban population participating inveche assemblies.[129]
^The chronicles mention that Novgorodians referred to each other as "brothers", and evidence of this can be found in letters written by Hanseatic merchants dating to the 14th and 15th centuries. The term was also used in reference to people from other Russian polities. For example, the residents of Pskov were considered to be their "younger brothers".[158]
^Vodoff 2000, p. 1032, "...medieval Russian State extending from the gulf of Finland to the Urals...";Lind 2006, p. 890, "An independent city-republic in northwestern Russia (1136–1478)...".
^Feldbrugge 2009, p. 265, "Novgorod was not only a city-state, but also the centre of a large empire, covering the entire northern half of European Russia and extending even beyond the Ural Mountains...".
^Paul 2009, pp. 253–254, "Novgorod was the largest and wealthiest city in eastern Europe and the centre of Russian culture and art; it remained so until eclipsed by Moscow in the fifteenth century... This trade was vital to Novgorod the Great, which used the wealth that it brought the city to build hundreds of churches, paint hundreds of icons and frescoes, write chronicles central to our understanding of medieval Russian history... and pay for other activities that made Novgorod the cultural centre of Russia for three and a half centuries".
^Auty & Obolensky 1976, p. 74, "The year 1136, in which the Novgorodians deposed and imprisoned Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, was the turning point... Princes of Novgorod now assumed the throne at the invitation of theveche, which could also dismiss them...".
^Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159, "The major showdown took place in 1136... From then on, the Novgorodveche appointed and expelled the prince".
^Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159, "During the first decades of the 12th century, it gradually appropriated the right to elect its ownposadnik, who was originally an official appointed by the prince to rule during the latter's absence. Theposadnik thus became the elected burgomaster".
^Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159, The most important official after theposadnik was thetysiatskii (chiliarch, 'thousandman'), originally the military commander.
^Feldbrugge 2017, pp. 487, 498–501;Paul 2009, p. 261, "Thetysyatskii was originally the head of the Novgorodian town militia, but over time took on judicial and commercial functions as well";Feldbrugge 2009, pp. 264–265.
^Feldbrugge 2021, p. 178, "Actual power in Novgorod rested with its chief officials, theposadnik (mayor, or governor) and thetysiatskii (the Byzantine chiliarch, a military commander), originally appointees of the prince, but subsequently elected, theveche, dominated by the Novgorod boyars...".
^Monahan 2016, p. 78, "In some ways the history of Russia in Siberia properly begins in the forested hinterlands of the Russian north, where the Novgorodian republic grew wealthy exploiting furs in its hinterlands and as far as the Urals...Ushkuiniki, as the fur trappers and traders of Novgorod were called, raided and extorted furs from Samoyed and Vogul (and Komi) tribes in the far northern forests of Novgorod's hinterlands".
^Khokhlov 2017, p. 159, "Организаторами походов нередко выступали бояре, стремившиеся снизить социальную напряжённость в Новгороде путём вовлечения низших слоёв гор. населения в сферу военно-финансовой колонизации".
^Filyushkin 2006, pp. 39–40;Paul 2008, p. 83;Gorsky 1996, pp. 48–50;Feldbrugge 2017, p. 824, "The grand princes of Vladimir had for centuries exercized the right to appoint the nominal prince of Novgorod".
^Paul 2008, pp. 73, 83, "From 1230 onward, the Novgorodian throne remained in the hands of the Vladimir grand princes until Grand Prince Ivan III... took direct control of the city in 1478...";Millar 2004, p. 687, Under Ivan III's reign, the uniting of separate Russian principalities into a centralized state made great and rapid progress;Stevens 2013, p. 28;Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 77, "Under Ivan III 'the gathering of Russia' proceeded apace... Ivan III's most significant conquests were Novgorod and Tver... All in all, Ivan III's successes in other Russian states and in foreign wars enormously increased his domain";Feldbrugge 2017, pp. 380, 824–825.
^Hixon 1998, p. 194, "Although Novgorod had originally 'invited' the Varangian princes to rule over Russia in 862, it had grown increasingly high-handed in its treatment of their descendents... Having been both the birthplace of Russian monarchy, and the stronghold of popular democracy, Novgorod became a touchstone in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century debate on the form of government proper to the Russian state".
^Borrero 2009, p. 254, "In 862, the semilegendary Rurik – considered to be the founder of the Russian monarchy – became prince of Novgorod... Nevertheless, in 1136 Novgorod achieved formal independence from Kiev... and by the 14th century had grown into an important outpost of the Hanseatic League...".
^Jakobsson 2020, p. 65, "This foundation narrative thus clear reflects the interests of the rulers of Kiev... This stands in contrast to most Greek and Latin sources, in which Kiev is not mentioned as an important center for the Rus at this early date. InDe administrando imperio it appears only as an output, whereas Novgorod is presented as the capital".
^Bandlien 2016, p. 331, "During this period the so-called 'Russian-Scandinavian cultural symbiosis' prevalent since the establishment of Rus' as a political entity in the ninth century was overshadowed by rivalry and hostility in the wake of the Baltic crusades. Until the thirteenth century, the Russians were conventionally seen by the Scandinavians – and indeed understood themselves – as a part of the unifiedgens Christianorum... ".
^Lind 2017, p. 143, "This 'Second' Crusade to Finland was, according to Russian sources, immediately followed by the unsuccessful Swedish expedition to the Neva, which was thwarted by the Novgorodians".
^Fonnesberg-Schmidt 2007, pp. 216–217, "The Russian victory was later depicted as an event of great national importance and Prince Alexander was given the sobriquet "Nevskii".
^Moss 2003, p. 73, The first significant Russian prince to rule under the Mongols was Alexander Nevsky. When the Mongols conquered Rus, he was prince of Novgorod, and he soon led it to two important victories. For his first victory... in 1240, he received (two centuries later) the appellation 'Nevsky'...".
^Lock 2013, p. 221, "At first the lands around Pskov were occupied, but in 1242 Prince Alexander Nevsky drove the Germans back from his lands and defeated the Teutonic Knights on 5 April 1242 in the so-called 'battle on the ice'".
^Fonnesberg-Schmidt 2007, p. 220, "...the campaign against Izborsk and Pskov was a purely political undertaking... the co-operation between the exiled Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich of Pskov and the men from the bishopric of Dorpat.
^Fonnesberg-Schmidt 2007, pp. 218, In the winter of 1240–41, a group of Latin Christians invaded Votia, the lands north-east of Lake Peipus which were tributary to Novgorod".
^Isoaho 2006, p. 67, "The popular image of Prince Aleksandr is above all that of a defender; later he achieved his patriotic image as the ideal defender of the whole Russian nation... at the time when the so-called 'Catholic expansion' was directed towards Russia... theLife of Aleksandr depicts an ideal ruler whose Christian valour was demonstrated by miraculous acts".
^Paul 2008, p. 73, "thus in 1478 Grand Prince Ivan III the Great (r. 1462-1505)... took the city by force of arms and abolished theposadnichestvo (mayoralty), thetysiatskie, and theveche, as well as the independence of the archbishop. He replaced the independent, republican government with hisnamestnik or lieutenant who carried out the orders of the grand princely government in Ivan's 'patrimony'...".
^Bushkovitch 2011, p. 37, If we must choose a moment for the birth of Russia out of the Moscow principality, it is the final annexation of Novgorod by Grand Prince Ivan III (1462–1505) of Moscow in 1478.
^Paul 2008, p. 83, "...the grand princes were able to take control of Novgorod and later dominate not only Novgorod, but eventually all of Russia. The grand prince's position at the top of all-Russian politics meant he could not remain long in Novgorod...".
^Kirby 2014, p. 53, "The bringing together of the Russian lands under his rule and the recognition of his claim to be sovereign of all Russia (gosudar' vseya Rusi) was Ivan's primary objective".
^Feldbrugge 2017, p. 478, "Ianin has stressed the importance of the Novgorod elite, the boyars, as the dominant force in the city's policies... Their narrow-minded obsession with their own interests, leading to the estrangement of the ordinary people, eventually caused not only their own downfall, but the loss of independence... because, when the pressure from Muscovy increased, the general populace greeted the grand prince as a liberator...".
^Hammond 2009, p. 247, "The unification of Russia around Moscow confronted the Russian government with the problem of integrating Novgorod with the other newly annexed territories into the state... TheSudebnik issued by Ivan III in 1497 was Russia's first 'national' code of laws".
^Crummey 2013, p. 33, "Just before 1300, a series of reforms consolidated the oligarchy's hold on Novgorod... In order to make the oligarchy's rule more stable and effective, its members formed the Council of Lords".
^Wren & Stults 2009, pp. 53–54, "It consisted exclusively of members of the great merchant families who dominated city office and gave city government the character of an oligarchy".
^Grew 2015, p. 355, "In the commercial cities of Novgorod and Pskov a merchant oligarchy dominated political life through the operation of the popular assembly (veche)".
^Koenigsberger 2014, p. "From then on Novgorod was effectively a city republic, ruled by an oligarchy, a small group of boyar and rich merchant families, much like western and central European towns, but unique in Russia".
^V. O. Kliuchevskii,Boiarskaia Duma drevnei Rus; Dobrye liudi Drevnei Rus (Moscow: Ladomir 1994), 172–206; Idem., Sochinenii, vol. 2, pp. 68–69
^Yanin 2008, p. 63, "Новый порядок вечевого избрания епископа и его последующего утверждения («хиротонисания») митрополитом существовал вплоть до конца новгородской независимости".
^Meyendorff 2010, p. 83, "There was, however, one city and one diocese, which, although a part of the metropolitanate, succeeded in maintaining a privileged status of relative independence: Novgorod. A commercial city... succeeded in maintaining great political independence... Its spiritual head, the bishop, occupied the fourth prominent position in the city government. Since the twelfth century, he assumed the title of 'archbishop'".
^Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 56, "...the Novgorodian veche... selected three candidates for the position of archbishop; next, one of the three was chosen by lot to fill the high office; and, finally, he was elevated to his new ecclesiastical rank by the head of the Russian Church, the metropolitan".
^Быков, А. В. (2006).Новгородское войско XI–XV веков (диссертация) (in Russian). p. 212.
^Шмелев К.В. (2001). "О применении судовой артиллерии на северо-западе России в допетровское время".Вестник молодых ученых: Исторические науки (in Russian).1:53–55.
^Gibellini 2002, p. 138, "For these reasons, we find coexisting in the churches, in the monuments, and in the icons of what was one of the oldest and most important Orthodox religious centres, the Byzantine-influenced style of Kiev, European Romanesque and Gothic art, and the most original and authentic 'Russian spirit'".
^Vzdornov & McDarby 1997, p. 67, The art of Novgorod and its vast northern territories will always be one of the most brilliant pages in the history of Russian art. With the fall of the city in 1478, not only did its political importance decrease, but so did its artistic authority. After having established a centralized Russian state, Moscow set out to suppress systematically all local traditions... The borders between the iconography from Moscow and that of Novgorod were slowly disappearing and, starting with the second half of the sixteenth century, it becomes more difficult to trace boundary lines between the two schools.
Malyshev, Sergey I. (2012).«Все град людии, изволеша собе...». Очерки истории выборов в Великом Новгороде ["All the townspeople chose for themselves...". Essays on the history of elections in Veliky Novgorod] (in Russian). Veliky Novgorod: Избирательная комиссия Великого Новгорода.ISBN9785904062361.
Paul, Michael C. (March 2007). "Secular Power and the Archbishops of Novgorod before the Muscovite Conquest".Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History.8 (2):231–270.doi:10.1353/kri.2007.0020.
Rybina, Yelena A. (2007). "ТОРГОВЛЯ Новгорода X–XV вв." [Trade of Novgorod in the 10th–14th centuries]. InYanin, Valentin L. (ed.).Великий Новгород. История и культура IX-XVII веков. Энциклопедический словарь [Veliky Novgorod. History and culture from the 9th to 17th centuries. An encyclopedic dictionary] (in Russian). Нестор-История. pp. 456–457.ISBN9785981872365.
Sixsmith, Martin (2012).Russia: A 1,000 Year Chronicle of the Wild East. New York: Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers.ISBN978-1590207239.
Spassky, Ivan G. (1962).Русская монетная система: историко-нумизматический очерк [Russian monetary system: historical numismatic outline] (in Russian). Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа.
Valk, Sigizmund N., ed. (1949).Грамоты Великого Новгорода и Пскова [The charters of Veliky Novgorod and Pskov] (in Russian). Институт истории Академии наук СССР.
Zelenin, Dmitry (1994). "Обыденные полотенца и обыденные храмы".Избранные труды. Статьи по духовной культуре 1901–1913 гг (in Russian). Индрик.ISBN5857590078.
.jpg)
_en.svg)