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Norwegian literature is literature composed inNorway or byNorwegian people. The history of Norwegian literature starts with thepaganEddaic poems andskaldic verse of the 9th and 10th centuries with poets such asBragi Boddason andEyvindr Skáldaspillir. The arrival of Christianity around the year 1000 brought Norway into contact with European medieval learning, hagiography and history writing. Merged with native oral tradition and Icelandic influence, this was to flower into an active period of literature production in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Major works of that period includeHistoria Norwegie,Thidreks saga andKonungs skuggsjá.
The period from the 14th century to the 19th is considered a Dark Age in the nation's literature though Norwegian-born writers such asPeder Claussøn Friis,Dorothe Engelbretsdatter andLudvig Holberg contributed to the common literature ofDenmark–Norway. With the advent of nationalism and the struggle for independence in the early 19th century, a new period of national literature emerged. In a flood of nationalistic romanticism, thegreat four emerged:Henrik Ibsen,Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson,Alexander Kielland, andJonas Lie. The dramatistHenrik Wergeland was the most-influential author of the period while the later works ofHenrik Ibsen were to earn Norway a key place in Western European literature.
Modernist literature was introduced to Norway through the literature ofKnut Hamsun andSigbjørn Obstfelder in the 1890s. In the 1930sEmil Boyson,Gunnar Larsen,Haakon Bugge Mahrt,Rolf Stenersen andEdith Øberg were among the Norwegian authors who experimented with prose modernism. The literature in the first years after theSecond World War was characterized by a long series of documentary reports from people who had been in German custody, or who had participated in the resistance efforts during the occupation. In the 20th century notable Norwegian writers include the two Nobel Prize-winning authors,Knut Hamsun andSigrid Undset. The period after 1965 represented a sharp expansion of market for Norwegian fiction and the 1970s produced both politicization and empowerment of Norwegian authors. The 1980s has been labeled the "fantasy decade" in Norwegian literature.
The earliest preserved examples of Old Norse literature are theEddic poems, the oldest of which may have been composed in early 9th century Norway drawing on the common Germanic tradition ofalliterative verse. In the 9th century the first instances ofskaldic poetry also appear with the skaldsBragi Boddason,Þjóðólfr of Hvinir and the court poets ofHarald Fairhair. This tradition continued through the 10th century with the major Norwegian poet beingEyvindr skáldaspillir. By the late 10th century the tradition of skaldic verse had increasingly moved to Iceland and Norwegian rulers such asEiríkr Hákonarson andSt. Olaf employed mostly Icelandic poets.[citation needed]
In pagan times therunic alphabet was the only one used in Norway. The preserved inscriptions from that time are mostly short memorial dedications or magical formulas. One of the longest inscriptions is that on the 8th centuryEggjum stone, containing cryptic religious or magical allusions. Around the years 1000 to 1030, Christianity became established in Norway, bringing with it theLatin alphabet. The oldest preserved Norwegian prose works are from the mid-12th century, the earliest are Latin hagiographical and historical texts such asPassio Olavi,Acta sanctorum in Selio,Historia Norwegie andHistoria de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium. At the end of the 12th century, historical writing expanded to the vernacular withÁgrip af Nóregskonungasögum followed by theLegendary Saga of St. Olaf andFagrskinna.[citation needed]
Medieval Norwegian literature is closely tied with medievalIcelandic literature, and together, they are consideredOld Norse literature. The greatest Norse author of the 13th century was the IcelanderSnorri Sturluson. He recordedNorse mythology in the form of theProse Edda, a book of poetic language providing an important understanding of Norse culture prior to Christianity. He was also the author of theHeimskringla, a detailed history of the Norwegian kings that begins in the legendaryYnglinga saga and continues to document much of early Norwegian history.[citation needed][1]
The period of common Old Norse literature continued up through the 13th century with Norwegian contributions such asThidreks saga andKonungs skuggsjá but by the 14th century saga writing was no longer cultivated in Norway and Icelandic literature became increasingly isolated.[citation needed]
| Reformation-era literature |
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Norwegian literature was virtually nonexistent during the period of theScandinavian Union and the subsequentDano-Norwegian union (1387–1814). Ibsen characterized this period as "Four Hundred Years of Darkness". During the period of union with Denmark, Danish replaced Norwegian. The university and cultural center of Denmark–Norway was Copenhagen, where young men went to study.[2]
The reformation was imposed on Norway in 1537 and the Dano-Norwegian rulers used it to also impose Danish culture; this was effected through the pulpit as well as through written records, as pastors were trained in Copenhagen. Thus,written Norwegian became closely related to Danish, causing the literature to become essentially Danish. Geble Pedersson (c.1490–1557) was the first LutheranBishop of Bergen and a man of broad humanistic views; his adopted son,Absalon Pederssøn Beyer (1528–1575), followed in his footsteps as a humanist and a nationalist, writing an important historical work,Concerning the Kingdom of Norway (1567).Peder Claussøn Friis (1545–1615) was also a humanist who both revived theHeimskringla by translating it into the language of the period and wrote the first natural history of Norway as well as an important topographic study of Norway.[2]
The seventeenth century was a period of meager literary activity in Norway, but there were significant contributions.Petter Dass (1647–1707) wroteNordlands Trompet (The Trumpet of Nordland) which described in graphic verse the landscape, mode of life, conditions and character of the northern Norwegian people. Two other authors merit mention.Dorothe Engelbretsdotter (1634–1713), was Norway's first recognized woman author who wrote powerful religious poetry. Her first work,Siælens Sang-offer, was published in 1678.Taare-Offer was her second collected works and was published for the first time in 1685. Another gifted poet wasAnders Arrebo who translated the Psalms into Norwegian and composed the creation poem,Hexaemeron.[2]
Norway also contributed significantly to the joint literature of Denmark–Norway. One of the first names in Danish literature, Peder Claussøn Friis (1545–1614), was Norwegian-born. Other important Norwegian by birth 'Danish' authors of the period includedLudvig Holberg (Bergen, 1684–1754),Christian Tullin (Christiania, 1728–1765), andJohan Herman Wessel (1742–1785).[2]
Two major events precipitated a major resurgence in Norwegian literature. In 1811, a Norwegian university was established in Christiania (later renamed Oslo). Seized by the spirit of revolution following the American and French Revolutions, as well as bridling as a result of the forced separation from Denmark and subordination to Sweden subsequent to the Napoleonic wars, Norwegians signed their first constitution in 1814. Virtually immediately, the cultural backwater that was Norway brought forth a series of strong authors recognized first in Scandinavia, and then worldwide.
Henrik Wergeland is generally recognized as the father of a new Norwegian literature. The enthusiastic nationalism of Wergeland and his young following brought conflict with the establishment, which was unwilling to accept everything as good, simply because it was Norwegian.
This period also saw collection of Norwegian folk tales byPeter Asbjørnsen and BishopJørgen Moe. This collection, which paralleled those by theBrothers Grimm in Germany andHans Christian Andersen in Denmark, captured an important overview of the folk culture of the mountains and fjords.
At least as important in the creation of a Norwegian literature was the effort to introduce a pure Norwegian language, based on the dialects spoken in the areas more isolated from capital. The genius ofIvar Aasen (1813–1898) was at the heart of this effort. Aasen, a self-taught linguistic scholar and philologist, documented a written grammar and dictionary for the spoken Norwegian folk language, which became Nynorsk (New Norwegian) – the "speech of the country" as opposed to the official language largely imported from Denmark. Nynorsk is one of the two official written norms of the Norwegian language to this day.
By the late 19th century, in a flood of nationalistic romanticism, thegreat four emerged:Henrik Ibsen,Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson,Alexander Kielland, andJonas Lie. A unity of purpose pervades the whole period, creation of a national culture based on the almost forgotten and certainly neglected past, as well as celebration of thebondekultur or Norwegian farm culture. The realism of Kielland (e.g.,Skipper Worse) gave way to the romantic and nationalistic spirit which swept Europe and rekindled the Norwegian interest in their gloriousViking past (e.g., Ibsen'sThe Vikings at Helgeland), the struggles of theMiddle Ages (e.g., Ibsen'sLady Inger of Østeraad), peasant stories (e.g., Bjørnson'sA Happy Boy) and the wonders of myths and folks tales of the mountains (e.g., Ibsen'sPeer Gynt) and the sea (e.g., Lie'sThe Visionary).
Although a strong contributor to early Norwegian romanticism,Henrik Ibsen is perhaps best known as an influential Norwegian playwright who was largely responsible for the popularity of modern realistic drama in Europe, with plays likeThe Wild Duck andA Doll's House. In this, he built on a theme first evident in Norway with plays like Bjørnson'sEn fallit (A Bankruptcy).
Although a side note to the mainstream of Norwegian literature, the literature which documents the experience of Norwegian emigrants to America is as important as the Norwegian immigrants became to the growing America of the 19th century. Three authors are recognized in this genre;Ole Rølvaag wrote about immigrants, whileJohan Bojer andIngeborg Refling Hagen wrote about emigrants. Ole E. Rølvaag, who immigrated to America, experienced life in the prairies, and rose to become professor of Norwegian atSt. Olaf College in Northfield,Minnesota, provided a strong record of the joys and pains of the immigrant in adapting to the harsh realities of and carving out a new life in a wild new country. Norwegian author Johan Bojer provided a mirror image, depicting the struggles and processes which led to the decisions to emigrate. Ingeborg Refling Hagen, having two brothers and a sister in the United States contemplated the emigrant's longing for home and their harsh struggle "over there" in a known collection of emigrant poems from 1935.
Modernist literature was introduced to Norway through the literature ofKnut Hamsun andSigbjørn Obstfelder in the 1890s. In the 1930s,Emil Boyson,Gunnar Larsen,Haakon Bugge Mahrt,Rolf Stenersen andEdith Øberg were among the Norwegian authors who experimented with prose modernism. The books of the 1930s did not receive the same recognition as modernist works after the war. In 1947,Tarjei Vesaas published a poetry collection,Leiken og lynet, that led to major debate about the shape and rhythm for Norwegian poetry. This evolved further in the 1950s. Rolf Jacobsen achieved recognition as a poet of modernistic style after the war.Kristofer Uppdal was also recognized for his work.
After the death of the great four andAmalie Skram, a new period of Norwegian literature took place. The year 1905, when Norway was free from the union with Sweden, marks a new period in the history of Norwegian literature. In the 20th century, three Norwegian novelists won theNobel Prize in Literature. The first wasBjørnstjerne Bjørnson, whose prize reflected work of the previous century. The second was awarded toKnut Hamsun for the idealistic novelMarkens Grøde (Growth of the Soil, 1917) in 1920. The third wasSigrid Undset for the trilogy of Kristin Lavransdatter and the two books of Olav Audunssøn, in 1927.
Knut Hamsun was especially criticized because of his sympathy forNasjonal Samling, a Norwegian Nazi-party, during the Second World War.
Other important Norwegian writers include:Trygve Gulbranssen,Jens Bjørneboe,Agnar Mykle,Olav Duun,Cora Sandel,Kjartan Fløgstad,Arne Garborg,Aksel Sandemose,Tarjei Vesaas,Lars Saabye Christensen,Kjell Askildsen,Johan Borgen,Dag Solstad,Herbjørg Wassmo,Jon Fosse,Hans Herbjørnsrud,Jan Erik Vold,Roy Jacobsen,Bergljot Hobæk Haff,Hans E. Kinck,Olav H. Hauge,Rolf Jacobsen,Gunvor Hofmo,Arnulf Øverland,Sigbjørn Obstfelder,Olaf Bull,Aasmund Olavsson Vinje,Tor Ulven,Torborg Nedreaas,Stein Mehren,Jan Kjærstad,Georg Johannesen,Kristofer Uppdal,Aslaug Vaa,Halldis Moren Vesaas,Sigurd Hoel,Johan Falkberget, Hans Børli andAxel Jensen.
The literature in the first years after theSecond World War was characterized by a long series of documentary reports from people who had been in German custody, or who had participated in the resistance efforts during the occupation. The most famous among these wereLise Børsums'sFange i Ravensbrück,Odd Nansen'sFra dag til dag (From Day to Day) and the posthumously publishedPetter Moens dagbok (Petter Moen's diary). Some years later, biographies of heroes of resistance, such asFridtjof Sælen'sShetlands-Larsen, aboutLeif Andreas Larsen, and David Armin Howarth'sNi liv. Historien om Jan Baalsrud (Nine Lives – the story ofJan Baalsrud), became major publishing successes.
Fiction of the period also centered on the war.Sigurd Evensmo'sEnglandsfarere (published in English as "A Boat for England") about a group of resistance fighters who are captured.Tarjei Vesaas symbolically addressed the war experience inHuset i mørkret (The House in the Dark). A significant portion of the post-war literature was concerned with the question of why some remained good Norwegian patriots while others, seemingly ordinary people, served the enemy. Examples of this includeSigurd Hoel'sMøte ved milepelen from 1947,Kåre Holt'sDet store veiskillet (The Big Fork) from 1949 andAksel Sandemose'sVarulven (The Werewolf) from 1958, which provide psychological explanations forcollaboration.
Poetry written during the war, which had either been broadcast from London or had circulated illegally, was published as collections in the spring of 1945, and enjoyed a popularity that Norwegian poetry has not seen before or since. In particularArnulf Øverland'sVi overlever alt (We survive everything) and Nordahl Grieg'sFriheten (Freedom) were well received. Some of those who were young during the war found that the traditional lyrical forms were insufficient to express horrors of war, atomic bombs and the emerging Cold War.Gunvor Hofmo, who was personally affected by the war, came with the remarkable collectionsJeg vil hjem til menneskene (I Want to Go Home to the People) andFra en annen virkelighet (From an Alternate Reality).
Modernism appeared on a broad front in the Norwegian poetry of the 1950s. It impacted the lyrics produced by Tarjei Vesaas,Ernst Orvil,Astrid Tollefsen andOlav H. Hauge. Among the younger poets, such asAstrid Hjertenæs Andersen,Paal Brekke,Hans Børli,Harald Sverdrup andMarie Takvam, free verse was the preferred form. Paal Brekke was modernism's foremost advocate against traditionalists – such as Arnulf Øverland andAndré Bjerke – in a wide-ranging debate about poetic forms which is recognized as thespeaking-in-tongues debate.Georg Johannesen's first publicationDikt (Poetry) in 1959 introduced a new interest in political and social values, that had not been particularly evident in the 1950s. At the same time, the well-established poet, Rolf Jacobsen, espoused a more critical attitude to the consumer mentality and environmental destruction.
In prose, first and foremost it wasJens Bjørneboe who led the attack on the establishment in the 1950s. InJonas andDen onde hyrde (The Evil Shepherd) he attacks the school and prison systems, arguing that there the government shows its authoritarian aspects particularly clearly. One of the highlights of 1950s prose literature isJohan Borgen'sLillelord trilogy. Borgen' work is characterized by an experimental prose-writing style, which can be seen in several short story collections as well as the experimental novelJeg (I) from 1959. Another highlight of 1950s literature was two controversial novels byAgnar Mykle's about Ask Burlefot:Lasso rundt fru Luna (published in English as "Lasso Around The Moon") andSangen om den røde rubin (The Song of the Red Ruby). But as a result of legal intervention against the latter book, the pressure of the court case and surrounding controversy left Mykle a reclusive who published little thereafter.Axel Jensen was another fresh, new voice in the 1950s. In his debut novelsIkaros andLine the young protagonist comes to terms with nonsocialistic members of the Social Democratic welfare state. Jensen also introduced a new theme in Norwegian literature with the publication ofEpp in 1965; this novel dealt with a futuredystopia.
Besides Johan Borgen, Tarjei Vesaas andTorborg Nedreaas also achieved recognition as excellent short story writers. In 1953,Kjell Askildsen debuted with the short story collectionHeretter følger jeg deg helt hjem (From now on I'll walk you all the way home). He has since remained at short prose genre, and is today considered one of Norwegian literature's finest short story writers.
The period after 1965 represented a sharp expansion of market for Norwegian fiction. In 1965,Norway instituted a policy for purchasing new literature. The state committed to purchase 1000 copies of each new title of Norwegian literature (conditioned on it meeting minimum standards). These were distributed among the country's libraries. This, combined with the creation of the book clubBokklubben Nye Bøker (New Books) in 1976 produced increased vitality in the country's literary production.
The 1970s produced both politicization and empowerment of Norwegian authors as a group – as well as intellectuals in general. TheNorwegian Authors' Union became an arena for political struggle as well as the struggle for academic authors' rights. At one point the author's union split into two camps. Around the country the authors organized themselves in the regional author's organizations, and started a number of literary journals, in which contributions by amateur writers were welcomed.
Profil would eventually become the most-notable literary magazine. From 1965, it published the work of a number of young writers who would put their distinct mark on the literature of the period. TheProfil goal was to bring Norwegian literature abreast ofEuropean literature in general. To achieve this, they rebelled against the traditionalpsychological novel development. The question of the true identify for the modern state was core.Dag Solstad contributed significantly to this late-1960s figures modernism through his articles, essays and literary works.
Poetry already exhibited a modernist style, which was prevalent through the 1950s and early 1960s. Traditionalists who still wrote in fixed stanza forms were out of favor. The younger poets targeted replacing the 1950s-style symbolism, andJan Erik Vold was at the forefront of this insurgency. Profil poetry introduced a new simplicity,concretism, and use of everyday language.Paal Brekke was particularly noted for promoting modern European poetry, both as poet and critic. He argued for a renewal of Norwegian poetry, and spread knowledge of foreign literature through translations ofEnglish modernist writers likeT.S.Eliot. In the mid-1950s, Brekke participated in the debate on lyrical form, and opposedAndré Bjerke andArnulf Øverland in the so-calledGlossolalia debate. Among the established lyrists,Olav H. Hauge transitioned tomodernistic andconcretist poetry and enjoyed a renaissance, especially with his collection entitledDropar in austavind, which inspired other, younger Norwegian poets, such asJan Erik Vold.
After a short period theProfil group went separate routes, as authors such as Dag Solstad,Espen Haavardsholm, andTor Obrestad turned to the newly formed partyWorkers' Communist Party (Arbeidernes kommunistparti or AKP), and become involved in formulating a new political program that based on the view that literature should serve the working people and their uprising against capitalism. Arild Asnes Solstad's1970 is a key novel to understanding the desire of the modern intellectual to connect with something larger and more realistic – the working people and a cause.
There were few AKP-authors, yet they managed to set a major part of the agenda for Norwegian fiction through much of the 1970s. Some authors began to write novels and poems in a language targeted so that people could recognize themselves, often known associal realism literature. Well-known works in this genre include Solstad's25. septemberplassen, Obrestad'sSauda! Streik! and Haavardsholm'sHistoriens kraftlinjer.
Even though a minority wrote AKP-themed literature, there was a general willingness of the larger community of authors to support this literary focus. Besides the class struggle, there were two areas that were subject of serious literature:feminism and the struggle against the concentration of governmental power into a centralized government.
The termfeminist literature or woman's literature was shifting during this period. While some believed that a special term for literature written for women by women about women's experiences were necessary, others were concerned that feminist literature served to place the female writers and readers outside the community, in an isolated cycle. Notwithstanding the debate, important contributions came from new, female authors about women unsatisfactory role in the family and in society.Liv Køltzow'sHvem bestemmer over Liv og Unni? (Who decides for Liv and Unni?) is central to understanding the new woman's literature.Bjørg Vik contributed a long series of short story collections and the playTo akter for fem kvinner (Two acts for five women). Both Køltzow's and Vik's work stayed with the realistic tradition. LaterCecilie Løveid andEldrid Lunden created work with a more rebellious language representing a fresh genre of experimental work. Løveid's work is notably committed to finding a new language for a new female role.
The decade of the 1980s was in many ways a response to the social realism in 1970s literature. In 1983,Kaj Skagen published a polemical-philosophical treatise titledBazarovs barn ("Bazarov's Children", alluding to the Russian fictionalnihilistEugene Bazarov), which reconciled the role of authors who had been on the periphery in the 1970s. Skagen advocated for a more individual-oriented and idealistic literature. Although it is uncertain whether this book created or simplify reflected the transition, many of the 1970s authors shifted in new directions during the 1980s.Dag Solstad published two novels which were retrospectives on the Workers' Communist Party.Espen Haavardsholm wrote a novel titledDrift andEdvard Hoem authoredPrøvetid. All these works focused on middle-aged men who live through the crises of life, while struggling to find new footing. SimilarlyKnut Faldbakken's novels about the change of men's roles during the women's revolution in the 1970s reflected the new direction.
The 1980s generated several major novels that develop a main theme over decades, are centered on a strong-central character person and are built around rural milieu or a local community of a not too distant past. Examples includeLars Saabye Christensen'sBeatles,Tove Nilsen'sSkyskraperengler (Skyscraper Angels),Ingvar Ambjørnsen'sHvite niggere (White Niggers),Gerd Brantenberg's St.Croix trilogy,Herbjørg Wassmo's Tora-trilogy andRoy Jacobsen'sSeierherrene.
The 1980s have also been labeled the "fantasy decade" in Norwegian literature. A number of authors, includingKjartan Fløgstad,Mari Osmundsen,Hans Herbjørnsrud,Arild Nyquist,Jan Kjærstad andRagnar Hovland produced works with magical, fantastic or improbable elements. Literature written for children and young people also included fantastic elements;Tormod Haugen is the most notable contributor to this genre.
A large number of 1980s authors displayed a high degree of literary consciousness. Many of the new authors in this decade were formally educated in literature, philosophy and other academic subjects at the many schools or institutes for writers established throughout Norway. Many novels generated internal conflicts with the text itself or with other texts, and the protagonists was represented as a writer, scientist or artist.Jan Kjærstad'sHomo Falsus is perhaps the foremost of these 1980smeta-novels,Karin Moe'sKYKA/1984 another.Ole Robert Sunde andLiv Nysted also produced works in this genre. Another consequence of more academically oriented authors was the large number of essay collections published in recent years; these often provide an authors' interpretations of other authors or reflections on other forms of art.
The period showed a rising interest in crime literature.Jon Michelet,Gunnar Staalesen,Kim Småge andFredrik Skagen all were well appreciated by Norwegian readers. In the 1990s female crime writers such asKarin Fossum andAnne Holt had great success – the latter's works featured a female investigator. Interest in crime has in no way decreased since the turn of the millennium, and a number of writers have either specialized in crime or have alternated between crime and other prose.Jo Nesbø,Kurt Aust,Unni Lindell,Tom Egeland,Tom Kristensen,Jørn Lier Horst,Stein Morten Lier andKjell Ola Dahl are among the authors in this category. A stream of translated crime, especially from Sweden and Britain, have influenced Norwegian authors of this genre.
Another clear trend is an interest in biographies, especially of authors and artists. Many of the significant living writers during the 1980s have written one or more biographies of deceased artist or other colleagues. In addition, several significant biographies were written.The Fall of the Sun God. Knut Hamsun byJørgen Haugan andIngar Sletten Kolloen'sKnut Hamsun biography received great attention. There is a trend in these modern biographies – similar to today's cinema and unlike the past – to use source material of a private character.
In poetryRolf Jacobsen'sNattåpent sold almost 20,000 copies andHarald Sverdrup'sLysets øyeblikk was also very well received.Stein Mehren,Tor Ulven andPaal-Helge Haugen also published significant collections of poetry during this decade.Jan Erik Vold wrote some of his most political poetry, reminiscent of the 1970s, during the 1990s. The new and emerging poetry shows great diversity. However, only the rare collection of poetry achieves substantial sales or circulation. Poetry can be said to be in a crisis state, unlike newer novels, which often are published in large quantities as the month's book for book clubs.
Theater audiences show only moderate interest in new Norwegian plays. Hence drama has been overshadowed by prose and poetry, with one exception: Jon Fosse. Fosse, through the 1990s and later, has achieved an international acclaim not enjoyed by any other Norwegian playwright since Ibsen.
Karl Ove Knausgård had worldwide success with his six-volume series ofautobiographical novels entitledMy Struggle (Min kamp in Norwegian) and was described byWall Street Journal as "one of the 21st-century's greatest literary sensations". Knausgård is also the author of novels (Ute av verden,En tid for alt,Morgenstjernen), the autobiographicalThe Seasons Quartet and essay collections.[3]
Norway has a distinctcomic strip and single-panel comic culture that it shares withSweden.
Story-driven comics with local themes were popular in the postwar years, includingVangsgutane,Jens von Bustenskjold andSmørbukk. However, they gradually faded out of popularity, leading to several decades with no major locally produced comics (with the partial exception ofPyton). Starting in the early 1990s, a large number of strip comics were born from the local hype that had surrounded such US strip comics asCalvin & Hobbes,Piranha Club andBeetle Bailey. Significant names includeFrode Øverli (Pondus,Rutetid), Lars Lauvik (Eon,Wildlife),Mads Eriksen (M),Lise Myhre (Nemi), Øyvind Sagosen (Radio Gaga), and the duo Emberland & Sveen (Sleivdal IL).
Starting out with a focus on slapstick comedy, Norwegian comic strips gradually focused more on relationships and family life from the late 2000s onwards, leading to the creation of additional comic strips made by names likeHanne Sigbjørnsen (Tegnehanne) and Nils Axle Kanten (Hjalmar).
Hans Kristian Rustad's bookDigital litteratur (2012) provides an overview of early Norwegianelectronic literature. See also the Nordic Electronic Literature Collection in the ELMCIP Electronic Literature Knowledge Base.[4] Significant authors include Ottar Ormstad and Anne Bang Steinsvik.[5][6]
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