| Northern fulmar | |
|---|---|
_in_flight_Moher.jpg) | |
| Fulmarus glacialis auduboni nearMoher, Ireland | |
Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Procellariiformes |
| Family: | Procellariidae |
| Genus: | Fulmarus |
| Species: | F. glacialis |
| Binomial name | |
| Fulmarus glacialis (Linnaeus, 1761) | |
| Subspecies | |
Fulmarus glacialis glacialis | |
 | |
| Range ofF. glacialis Breeding range Wintering range | |
| Synonyms | |
Procellaria glacialisLinnaeus, 1761 | |
Thenorthern fulmar,Arctic fulmar,[2] or simplyfulmar[3] (Fulmarus glacialis), is an abundantseabird found primarily insubarctic regions of theNorth Atlantic andNorth Pacific oceans. There has been one confirmed sighting in theSouthern Hemisphere, with a single bird seen south ofNew Zealand.[4] Fulmars come in one of two colour morphs; a light one in temperate populations, with white head and body and grey wings and tail, and a dark one in arctic populations, which is uniformly grey; intermediate birds are common.[5] Though similar in appearance togulls,fulmars are in fact members of the familyProcellariidae, which includespetrels andshearwaters.
The northern fulmar and its sister species, thesouthern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides), are the onlyextant members of thegenusFulmarus. The fulmars are in turn a member of theorderProcellariiformes, and they all share certain identifying features. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill callednaricorns; however, nostrils on albatrosses are on the sides of the bill, as opposed to the rest of the order, including fulmars, which have nostrils on top of the upperbill. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into between seven and nine horny plates. One of these plates makes up the hooked portion of the upper bill, called themaxillary unguis. They produce astomach oil made up ofwax esters andtriglycerides that is stored in theproventriculus. This can be sprayed out of their mouths as a defense against predators from a very early age, and as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights.[6] It will mat theplumage of avian predators, and can lead to their death.[7] Finally, they also have asalt gland that is situated above the nasal passage that helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. This gland excretes a high saline solution from their nose.[7]
The northern fulmar was first described asProcellaria glacialis byCarl Linnaeus in 1761, based on a specimen from within theArctic Circle, onSpitsbergen.[2] TheMallemuk Mountain in Northeastern Greenland is named after the northern fulmar (Danish:Mallemuk).
The northern fulmar wasformally described by the Swedish naturalistCarl Linnaeus in 1761 in the second edition of his bookFauna Svecica. He placed it with the other petrels in the genusProcellaria and coined thebinomial nameProcellaria glacialis.[8] Linnaeus based his description mainly on the "Mallemucke" that had been described and illustrated in 1675 by the German naturalistFriderich Martens in his account of his voyage toSpitzbergen.[9][10] The northern fulmar is now placed in the genusFulmarus that was introduced in 1826 by the English naturalistJames Stephens.[11][12] The genus name comes from theOld NorseFúlmár meaning "foul-mew" or "foul-gull" because of the birds' habit of ejecting a foul-smelling oil. The specific epithetglacialis isLatin for "icy".[13]
Threesubspecies are recognised:[12]
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The northern fulmar has a wingspan of 102 to 112 cm (40–44 in)[2] and is 46 cm (18 in) in length.[14][17][18] Body mass can range from 450 to 1,000 g (16 to 35 oz).[19] Thisspecies is grey and white with a pale yellow, thick bill and bluish legs.[20] However, there are both a light morph and dark, or "blue",morph; in thePacific Ocean there is an intermediate morph as well. Only the dark morph has more than dark edges on the underneath but they all have pale innerprimaries on the top of the wings. The Pacific morph has a darker tail than the Atlantic morph.[2][14][17][20][21][22][23]
Like otherpetrels, their walking ability is limited, but they are strong fliers, with a stiffwing action quite unlike thegulls. They look bull-necked compared to gulls, and have short stubby bills.[20] They are long-lived, with a lifespan of 31 years not uncommon,[24] and exceptionally over 50 years, recorded onEynhallow inOrkney.[25]
| Location | Breeding population | Winter population | Breeding trend |
|---|---|---|---|
| Faroe Islands | 600,000 pairs | 500,000–3,000,000 individuals | stable |
| Greenland | 120,000–200,000 pairs | 10,000–100,000 individuals | stable |
| France | 1,300–1,350 pairs | 100–500 individuals | increasing |
| Germany | 102 pairs | increasing | |
| Iceland | 1,000,000–2,000,000 pairs | 1,000,000—5,000,000 individuals | decreasing |
| Ireland | 33,000 pairs | increasing | |
| Denmark | 2 pairs | 200–300 individuals | increasing |
| Norway | 7,000–8,000 pairs | increasing | |
| Svalbard | 500,000–1,000,000 pairs | increasing | |
| Russia (Europe) | 1,000–2,500 pairs | ||
| United Kingdom | 506,000 pairs | ||
| Canada,Russia (Asia), &US | 2,600,000–4,200,000 pairs | ||
| Total (adult individuals) | 15,000,000–30,000,000 | increasing |
Northern fulmars will feed onshrimps,fish,squid,plankton,jellyfish, andcarrion, as well as refuse.[2][7][21][22] When eating fish, they will dive up to 4 metres deep to retrieve their prey.[27][18]
The northern fulmar starts breeding at between six and twelve years old.[27] It ismonogamous, and forms long-term pair bonds. It returns to the same nest site year after year.[7] The breeding season starts in May;[2] however, the female has glands that storesperm to allow weeks to pass between copulation and the laying of the egg.[7] During the breeding season adult Fulmars usually remain within 500 km of their breeding colony instead of traveling up to thousands of kilometres while searching for food.[28] Their nest is ascrape on a grassy ledge or a saucer of vegetation on the ground, lined with softer material. The birds nest in largecolonies[2][7][18][21][22] Recently, they have started nesting on rooftops and buildings.[2] Both sexes are involved in the nest-building process.[7] A single whiteegg, 74 mm × 51 mm (2.9 in × 2.0 in),[7] is incubated for a period of 50 to 54 days, by both sexes. Thealtricial chick is brooded for 2 weeks[29] and fullyfledges after 70 to 75 days. Again, both sexes are involved.[2][7] During this period, the parents arenocturnal, and will even be inactive on well-lit nights.[7]
The mating ritual of this fulmar consists of the female resting on a ledge and the male landing with his bill open and his head back. He commences to wave his head side to side and up and down while calling.[7]
They make grunting and chuckling sounds while eating and guttural calls during the breeding season.[21][22]
The northern fulmar is estimated to have between 15,000,000 and 30,000,000 mature individuals that occupy an occurrence range of 28,400,000 km2 (11,000,000 sq mi) and theirNorth American population is on the rise, hence it is listed with theIUCN asLeast Concern.[1] The range of these species increased greatly last century due to the availability of fish offal from commercial fleets, but may contract because of less food from this source and climatic change.[2] The population increase has been especially notable in theBritish Isles.[21]
Northern fulmars' stomach contents are a hallmark indicator ofmarine debris in marine environments because of their high abundance and wide distribution.[30] A study of 143 northern fulmars from 2008 to 2013 found 89.5% of them containing microplastics within their gastrointestinal tracts. A mean score of 19.5 pieces of plastic and 0.461 g per individual was calculated.[31] This is considerably higher than in past studies on northern fulmars, possibly implying increasing plastic debris in marine ecosystems and shorelines. However, more research is needed to substantiate such conclusion. Long-term data from the Netherlands dating back to the 1980s show an increase in consumer plastics and a decrease in industrial plastics in the stomach contents of fulmars.[30] The increased plastic ingestion can occur throughbiomagnification: their diet consists of such invertebrates likeplankton that have shown an increase of consumption ofmicroplastics entering the ocean. By going deeper into the food web of marine life, it is evident that fulmars could be indirectly affected through tropic transfer and biomagnification, and similarly could also affect their predators ingestion ofplastic pollution. With the increase in freshwater pollution of plastic debris, there may be a further rise in microplastic content of seabird gastrointestinal tracts.
A popular story among the centralInuit, for instance, is that of their race-motherSedna, who was the daughter of a chief, and was wooed by a fulmar who promised her, if she would marry him, a delightful life in his distant home. So she went away with him. But she had been ruefully deceived, and was cruelly mistreated. A year later her father went to pay her a visit; and discovering her misery he killed her husband and took his repentant daughter home. The other fulmars in the village followed them, mourning and crying for their murdered fellow, and fulmars continue to utter doleful cries to this day.[32]
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