Northern Yuan | |||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1368–1635 | |||||||||||||||||
 The Northern Yuan in the 15th century | |||||||||||||||||
| Capital | |||||||||||||||||
| Common languages | Mongolian,Chinese,Jurchen[1] | ||||||||||||||||
| Religion | Tengrism,Buddhism,Islam | ||||||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||||||
| Khagan | |||||||||||||||||
• 1368–1370 | Ukhaghatu Khan Toghon Temür (first) | ||||||||||||||||
• 1370–1378 | Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara | ||||||||||||||||
• 1378–1388 | Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür | ||||||||||||||||
• 1454–1455 | Esen Taishi (only non-Borjigin) | ||||||||||||||||
• 1478–1517/1543 | Dayan Khan (longest ruling) | ||||||||||||||||
• 1557–1592 | Tümen Zasagt Khan | ||||||||||||||||
• 1603–1634 | Ligdan Khan | ||||||||||||||||
• 1634–1635 | Ejei Khan (last) | ||||||||||||||||
| Legislature | |||||||||||||||||
| Historical era | Late Middle Ages | ||||||||||||||||
| September 1368 | |||||||||||||||||
• Death ofUskhal Khan Tögüs Temür | 1388 | ||||||||||||||||
• Dayan Khan reunites the Mongol nation | 1483–1510 | ||||||||||||||||
• Death ofLigdan Khan | 1634 | ||||||||||||||||
| 1635 | |||||||||||||||||
| Currency | Barter,Dirham | ||||||||||||||||
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| Today part of | |||||||||||||||||
| Part ofa series on the |
| History of China |
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TheNorthern Yuan was a dynastic state ruled by the MongolBorjigin clan based in theMongolian Plateau. It existed as arump state after the collapse of theYuan dynasty in 1368 and lasted until its conquest by theJurchen-ledLater Jin dynasty in 1635. The Northern Yuan dynasty began with the retreat of the Yuan imperial court led byToghon Temür (Emperor Huizong of Yuan) to the Mongolian steppe. This period featured factional struggles and the often only nominal role of theGreat Khan.
Dayan Khan andMandukhai Khatun reunited most Mongol tribes in the late 15th century.[3] However, the former's distribution of his empire among his sons and relatives asfiefs caused the decentralization of theimperial rule.[4] Despite this decentralization, a remarkable concord continued within the Dayan Khanid aristocracy, andintra-Chinggisid civil war remained unknown until the reign ofLigdan Khan (1604–1634),[5] who saw much of his power weakened in his quarrels with the Mongol tribes and was defeated by the Later Jin dynasty. The last sixty years of this period featured the intensive penetration ofTibetan Buddhism into Mongol society.
The regime that existed between 1368 and 1635 is known by various names, including the Northern Yuan (dynasty).[6] The dynastic name of "Great Yuan'" (Chinese:大元;pinyin:Dà Yuán) was officially used between 1368 and 1388, as was the precedingYuan dynasty. Following the death ofUskhal Khan Tögüs Temür, the "Great Yuan" dynastic name along with otherHan-style imperial titles were abandoned by his successorJorightu Khan Yesüder; hence, the name "Northern Yuan" is sometimes limited in its usage to referencing only the period between 1368 and 1388.[7] The historiographical term "Northern Yuan" in the English language is derived from the corresponding term "北元" (Běi Yuán) in the Chinese language, in which the prefix "Northern" is used to distinguish between the Yuan dynasty established in 1271 and the regime that existed after 1368. The historiographical name "Northern Yuan" first appeared in the Korean historical textGoryeosa written inClassical Chinese.[8] Some scholars believe that the reign ofDayan Khan whose regnal name "Dayan" came from the Chinese term "大元" (Dà Yuán; lit. "Great Yuan").[9] Contrary to this, other views hold that the title "Dayan" is derived from the Mongolian word means "origin" or "whole".[10] Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest thatTaisun Khan,Esen Taishi,Manduul Khan, andLigdan Khan had also used the "Great Yuan" dynastic name and Han-style imperial titles during their rule up to the early 17th century.[9][11]
In English, the term "Northern Yuan (dynasty)" is generally used to cover the entire period from 1368 to 1635 for historiographical purpose. Apart from "Great Yuan" (before 1388 and during the rule of Esen Taishi[12]), the Mongols called their regime "Ikh Mongol Uls", meaning the "Great Mongol State". It is also referred to as "Post-Imperial Mongolia", the " Mongol(ian) Khaganate" or the "Mongol(ian) Khanate"[13] in some modern sources,[14] Although most of these English terms can also refer to theMongol Empire or the Yuan dynasty in the 13th and the 14th centuries.
In chronicles written in the Mongolian language, this period is also known as "The Forty and the Four" (Döchin Dörben), meaning fortytümen of Eastern Mongols (Eastern Mongolia) and four tümen ofWestern Mongols.[note 1] Mongolian historiography also uses the term "Period of political disunion", "Period of small khagans", "Mongolia's period of political disruption" and "Mongolia's 14th–17th century", etc.[15][16] The Chinese Ming dynasty called them "Tatar" (Chinese:鞑靼;pinyin:Dádá) and "Wala" (Oirats,Chinese:瓦剌;pinyin:Wǎlà) after the Mongols were divided into eastern and western parts.[17]
The Northern Yuan dynasty was the remnant of theYuan dynasty (1271–1368) founded byKublai Khan. After eliminating theSong dynasty in 1279, the Yuan dynasty ruled all ofChina proper for about a century. Even prior to the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols had ruledNorthern China for more than 40 years, since the time they conquered the Jurchen-ledJin dynasty in 1234.
Yuan rule in China proper began to collapse in1344 when the Yellow River flooded and changed course, causing widespread droughts, flooding, and making theGrand Canal impassable.[18] In 1351, theRed Turban Rebellion erupted in theHuai River valley, which saw the rise ofZhu Yuanzhang, aHan peasant, who eventually established theMing dynasty (1368–1644) in southern China. In 1368, a Ming army advanced on the Yuan capitalKhanbaliq or Dadu (present-dayBeijing).[19]
Toghon Temür (r. 1333–1370), the last ruler of the Yuan, fled north toShangdu (located in present-dayInner Mongolia) from Dadu upon the approach of Ming forces. He tried to regain Dadu but failed and died inYingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death.[19]
The Mongols retreated toKarakorum in theMongol heartland after the fall of Yingchang in 1370, where they maintained the official dynastic title "Great Yuan", known retroactively as the "Northern Yuan". The Ming army pursued the Yuan remnants into the Mongolian steppe in 1372 but was defeated byBiligtü Khan Ayushiridara (r. 1370–1378) and his generalKöke Temür (d. 1375). In 1375,Naghachu, a Mongol official of Biligtu Khan inLiaoyang province invadedLiaodong with the aim of restoring Mongol power in China proper. Although he continued to hold southernManchuria,Naghachu eventually surrendered to the Ming dynasty in 1387–88.[20] The Yuan loyalists under the Kublaid princeBasalawarmi (thePrince of Liang) inYunnan andGuizhou were alsodefeated and killed by the Ming earlier in 1381–82.[21]
In 1380, the Ming invaded Northern Yuan and sacked Karakorum, although they were eventually forced to withdraw. Around 70,000 Mongol captives were taken. In 1387, the Ming defeatedthe Uriankhai Mongols, and in the following year they achieveddecisive victory around the Buir Lake againstUskhal Khan Tögüs Temür.[22] The defeat of Uskhal Khan effectively shattered Yuan power in the steppes and allowed the WesternOirat Mongols to rise and become the kingmakers of the Northern Yuan realm.[23]
The Genghisid (Major descendants of Kublai[24]) rulers of the Northern Yuan also buttressed their claim on China,[25][26] and held tenaciously to the title ofEmperor (orGreat Khan) of the Great Yuan (Dai Yuwan Khaan, or 大元可汗)[27] to resist the Ming, who had by this time become the true rulers of China proper. According to the traditional Chinese political orthodoxy, there could be only one legitimate dynasty whose rulers were blessed by Heaven to rule asEmperor of China (seeMandate of Heaven), so the Ming also denied the Yuan remnants' legitimacy as emperors of China, although the Ming did consider the previous Yuan which it had succeeded to be a legitimate dynasty.
In 1388, the Mongol throne was taken over byJorightu Khan Yesüder, a descendant ofArik Böke (Tolui's son), with the support of the Oirats. He abolished theHan-style title of the former Yuan dynasty.[28][29][30] In the following year, one of Uskhal Khan's subjects, Gunashiri, a descendant ofChagatai Khan, founded his own small state calledKara Del inHami.[31]
The following century saw a succession of Genghisid rulers, many of whom were mere figureheads put on the throne by those warlords who happened to be the most powerful. From the end of the 14th century there appear designations such as "period of small kings" (Бага хаадын үе).[32] On one side stood theWestern Mongols and on the other theEastern Mongols. While the Oirats drew their khans from the descendants of Ariq Böke and other princes,Arugtai of theAsud supported the old Yuan khans of Kublaid descent. TheHouse of Ogedei also briefly attempted to reunite the Mongols under their rule.
The Mongols eventually split into three main groups: the Oirats in the west, theUriankhai in northeast, and the Khorchin between the two. The Uriankhai surrendered to the Ming dynasty in the 1390s. The Ming divided them into the Three Guards: Doyin, Tai'nin and Fuyu.[33]
Mongol relations with the Ming dynasty consisted of sporadic bursts of conflict intermingled with periods of peaceful relations and border trade. The Oirat-backedÖrüg Temür Khan (Gulichi) was defeated by Elbeg Khan's sonÖljei Temür Khan (Bunyashiri, r. 1408–1412), the protégé ofTamerlane (d. 1405), in 1403. Most of the Mongol noblemen under Arugtaichingsang sided with Öljei Temur. TheYongle Emperor (r. 1402–1424) issued Öljei Temür an ultimatum demanding his acceptance of tributary relations to the Ming dynasty. Öljei Temur refused, resulting in theMing dynasty conducting several campaigns against the Mongols. In 1409, a Ming army of 100,000 entered Mongolia but suffered a defeat against Öljei Temur and Arugtai at theBattle of Kherlen. In the following year, the Yongle Emperor personally led an expedition into Mongolia and defeated the Mongols. After the death of Öljei Temur, the Oirats under their leader Bahamu (Mahmud) (d. 1417) enthroned an Ariq BökidDelbeg Khan in 1412. Originally the Ming had supported the Oirats in their power struggle with the eastern Mongols, but as the Oirats gained supremacy over them, the Ming withdrew their support.
By 1422 Arugtai turned hostile again as the Ming did not grant him the trading privileges he wanted,[34] and Yongle campaigned against him in 1422 and 1423. Bahamu's successor Toghan pushed Arugtai east of theGreater Khingan range in 1433. The Oirats killed him in the west ofBaotou the next year. Arugtai's allyAdai Khan (r. 1425–1438) made a last stand inEjin before he was murdered too.[35]
Toghan died in the very year of his victory over Adai. His sonEsen Taishi (r. 1438–1454) brought the Oirats to the height of their power. Under his puppet khans, he drove backMoghulistan and crushed the Uriankhai Three Guards,Kara Del and theJurchens. In 1449 he defeated a 500,000 strong Ming army and captured theZhengtong Emperor in what came to be known as theTumu Crisis.[36] However, after this astounding victory, Esen failed to take the Ming capital ofBeijing. In the following year a peace was concluded between the two sides and the captive emperor was allowed to return home. After executing the rebelliousTayisung Khan (r. 1433–1453) and his brotherAgbarjin in 1453, Esen took the title of not just khan, but also Yuan Emperor.[37] This caused widespread dissent among the Genghisids, and in 1455, a series of revolts resulted in Esen's death. His death started the decline of the Oirats, who would not recover until their rise as theDzungar Khanate in the 17th century.[38]
From Esen's death to 1481 differentwarlords of theKharchin, theBelguteids andOrdos Mongols fought over succession and had their Genghisid khans enthroned. The Mongolian chroniclers call some of them theUyghurs and they might have had some ties with theHami oasis.[39] During his reign,Manduulun Khan (1475–1478) effectively won over most of the Mongol warlords before he died in 1478.
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Manduulun's youngkhatunMandukhai proclaimed a seven-year-old boy namedBatumongke of Genghisid descent as khan. Mandukhai made persistent efforts to bring the various Mongol tribes under control. The new khan took the titleDayan meaning "the whole"[40][41] or “Great Yuan” (大元; "Da Yuan").[42] Mandukhai and Dayan Khan defeated the Oirats and the taishis who ruled theYellow River Mongols. However, one of them killed Dayan Khan's son and revolted when Dayan Khan appointed his son, Ulusbold, asjinong (crown prince) over them. Dayan Khan finally defeated the southwestern Mongols in 1510 with the assistance of his allies, Unebolad wang and theFour Oirats.[43] Making another of his sons jinong, he abolished old-Yuan court titles of taishi, chingsang, pingchan and chiyuan.
From 1495 onward, Dayan exerted pressure on the Ming dynasty, which closed border-trade and killed his envoys. Dayan invaded Ming territory and subjugated the Uriankhai Three Guards, who had previously submitted to the Ming. As a result, theTümed Mongols ruled in theOrdos region and they gradually extended their domain into northeasternQinghai.[44] In 1517, Dayan even threatened Beijing itself. Mongol armies raided the Ming dynasty not only in the north but also in the hitherto quiet west. The Ming dynasty lost Kara Del as a protectorate to the Turpan Khanate at the same time. Dayan kept defeating the Ming in battle right up until his death in 1543.[45] At the apogee of Dayan's reign, the Northern Yuan stretched from theSiberiantundra andLake Baikal in the north, across theGobi, to the edge of theYellow River and south of it into the Ordos. The lands extended from the forests ofManchuria in the East past theAltai Mountains and out onto the steppes ofCentral Asia.[46]
Dayan Khan's reorganization of the Mongols into six Eastern Mongol tümens (literally "ten thousand") and four Oirats tümens had far-reaching effects on the development of Mongol society.
The six Eastern Mongol tümens were granted to his 11 sons while the four Oirat tümens were ruled by taishi nobles. His youngest sonGersenji Khongtaiji of the Jalayir became the ruler of the Khalkha Mongols, the largest of the six tümens. The tümens functioned both as military units and as tribal administrative bodies who hoped to receive taijis, descended from Dayan Khan. Northern Khalkha people and Uriyankhan were attached to the South Khalkha of eastern Inner Mongolia and Doyin Uriyangkhan of the Three Guards, respectively. After the rebellion of the northern Uriankhai people, they were conquered in 1538 and mostly annexed by the northern Khalkha. However, his decision to divide the six tumens to his sons, or taijis, and local tabunangs-sons in the law of the taijis created a decentralized system ofBorjigin rule that secured domestic peace and outward expansion for a century. Despite this decentralization, there was a remarkable concord within the new Mongol order created by Dayan Khan.
After Dayan Khan's death, the Mongols began falling apart again under the two succeeding khans. By 1540 new regional circles of taijis and local tabunangs (imperial sons-in-law) of the taijis emerged in all the former Dayan Khan's domains. The khagan and the jinong had titular authority over the three right wing tumens.Darayisung Gödeng Khan (r. 1547–1557) had to grant titles of khans to his cousinsAltan, ruling the Tumed, and Bayaskhul, ruling the Kharchin.[48]
UnderTümen Jasagtu Khan (r. 1558–92), the realm was unified again with the aid of Altan Khan,Abtai Sain Khan, and Khutughtai Sechen Khongtaiji of Ordos. Jasagtu defeated the Uriankhai and Daghur Mongols and subjugated theJurchens to the east. Abtai and Sechen brought many of the Oirat tribes under their domination. Altan conquered large parts ofQinghai and left one of his sons in charge there. Jasagtu also tried to unify the Mongols under a new code of law, written in the old Mongol script derived from theUyghur script.[49] A series of smallpox epidemics and lack of trade forced the Mongols to repeatedly plunder the districts of China. In 1571 the Ming opened trade with the three Right Wing Tumens.[50]
By the end of the 16th century, the Uriankhai Three Guards had lost their existence as a distinct group. Their Fuyu was absorbed by the Khorchin after they had moved to theNonni River. Two other, Doyin and Tai'nin, were absorbed by the Five Khalkhas.[51]
Although Yuan emperors had previously adoptedBuddhism, most Mongols ignored it and remainedshamanist in their belief. From 1575, a large-scale conversion toTibetan Buddhism in the Right Wing Tumens occurred. Jasagtu appointed a Tibetan Buddhist chaplain of theKarmapa order and agreed that Buddhism would henceforth become the state religion of Mongolia. In 1577, Altan and Sechen received the3rd Dalai Lama, which started the conversion of Tumed and Ordos Mongols to Buddhism. Soon after the Oirats also adopted Buddhism. Numerous Tibetan lamas entered Mongolia to proselytize.[52]
By the reign ofLigdan Khan (r. 1604–1634), the Eastern Mongol tumens had ceased to function as a unified entity. Ligdan only controlled the Chahar tumen and the Khalkha and Oirat Mongols no longer obeyed his authority. Ligdan built a new capital in Chahar land known as Chaghan Baishin (White House) and promoted the building of Buddhist monasteries, translation of Tibetan literature, and trade with the Ming dynasty.[53]
In 1616, the Jurchens rose to the forefront of East Asian powers under the reign ofNurhaci. Although sharing many similar characteristics with the Mongols, the Jurchens were not nomads, but tribal people who had adopted Chinese agricultural practices. Nurhaci had ambitions to conquer the Ming dynasty and sought allies in the Khorchin Mongols, subjects of Ligdan. The princes ofKhorchin, Jarud, and southern Khalkha Mongols made a formal alliance with the Jurchens from 1612 to 1624.[54]
In response, Ligdanwaged war on the Mongol allies of the Jurchens in 1625. The Jurchen-Mongol army defeated Ligdan and forced him back. In the following year, Uuba Noyan of the Khorchin had his younger brother marry one of Nurhaci's daughters, cementing the alliance. Many of the Jurchens married Mongols. Ligdan appointed his own officials over the tumens and formed an elite military band to coerce opposition. In 1628, Ligdan defeated the Khorchins and Jurchen auxiliary at Zhaocheng but fled a large Jurchen punitive expedition. OnlyTsogt Taiji (1581–1637) supported the Great Khan whilst other nobles of Khalkha remained neutral and inactive. In 1632,Hong Taiji of the Jurchens and his Mongol allies defeated the Chahars and captured Ligdan's family. Ligdan lost any authority he had over the non-Chahar tumens. Ligdan died on his way to Qinghai to punish theGelug order in 1634. His son,Ejei Khan, surrendered to theQing dynasty and was said to give theImperial Seal of the Mongols to Qing emperorHong Taiji the next year (February 1635), ending the Kublaid descent ruled Northern Yuan.[55]
After Ligdan Khan's death in 1634, the Mongols formed four Khanates, from west to east:
In 1636, all ofInner Mongolia had already been conquered by theManchus, and the successors of the Mongol Empire were also under Manchu authority.[56] The son of Ligdan Khan,Ejei, died under mysterious circumstances. His rank was given to his brother Abunai, who refused to attend court with the Manchus. Abunai's rank was then passed on to his son, Burni, who rebelled against the Manchus in 1675, but the uprising was defeated and Burni died in battle.[57][58] The Qing emperors then placed the Chahar Mongols under their direct rule.
In Outer Mongolia the Khalkhas still against Manchu rule,Tüsheet Khan Gombodorj retained his independence and suzerainty over the Sechen and Jasagtu khans. However another independent entity known asAltan Khan of the Khalkha emerged in Jasagtu territory. With the loss of Inner Mongolia and the Imperial Mongol Seal, the Mongols had to search for a new source of authority. As a result, in 1639, Gombodorj's son became the firstJebtsundamba Khutuktu, the spiritual head of the Gelug Buddhists in Mongolia. Gombodorj did his best to maintain peaceful relations with the rising Manchus by sending tribute. He also stopped providing horses to theMing dynasty. Diplomacy failed after the Manchus defeated the Ming in 1644 and seizedBeijing. In 1646, a Mongol noyan rebelled against the Qing but was crushed under overwhelming odds. In 1647, Gombodorj met the Qing in battle with 50,000 cavalry and neither side were able to obtain a decisive victory. Although both sides suffered heavy losses, the Mongol army constituted a larger part of their overall forces than the Qing, signalling that the Mongols no longer had the numbers to directly confront the Qing in battle.[59]
In the mid-17th century, Gombodorj died and was succeeded by his young and inexperienced son Chikhundorj. In 1655, the Qing began interfering in Tusheet affairs by appointing their own lamas in Tusheet territory. Thus Outer Mongolia also gradually fell under Qing control.[60]
Meanwhile, to the west, about 1600–1620 theOirats united underKharkhul. In 1635, the Oirats under Kharkhul's sonErdeni Batur formed theDzungar Khanate. This unification was partly driven by their wars with the Altan Khans.[59] When the Jasagtu Khan Shira lost part of his subjects to the Tüsheet Khan Chikhundorj,Galdan Boshugtu Khan of the Dzungars moved hisorda near theAltai Mountains to prepare an attack. Chikhundorj attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. In 1688, Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against Chikhundorj but they were eventually defeated and Dorji-jav was killed in battle. Chikhundorj then murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Jasagtu Khan who was on the way to Galdan. To avenge the death of his brother, Galdan established friendly relations with the Russians who were already at war with Chikhundorj over territories nearLake Baikal. Armed with Russian firearms, Galdan led 30,000 Dzungar troops into Outer Mongolia in 1688 and defeated Chikhundorj in three days. TheSiberian Cossacks, meanwhile, attacked and defeated a Khalkha army of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars nearErdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chikhundorji and his brotherJebtsundamba KhutuktuZanabazar fled across theGobi Desert to the Qing dynasty and submitted to theKangxi Emperor.[61]
By 1690, Galdan had control of Outer Mongolia as far as the edge of Manchuria, before turning his attention east towards Beijing. This expansion of the Dzungar state was viewed with worry by the Qing, which led theKangxi Emperor (Enh-Amgalan khaan-in Mongolian) to block Galdan. Late in the summer of 1690, Galdan crossed theKherlen River with a force of 20,000 and engaged a Qing army atBattle of Ulan Butung 350 kilometers north ofBeijing near the western headwaters of theLiao River. Galdan was forced to retreat and escaped total destruction because the Qing army did not have the supplies or ability to pursue him. In 1696, theKangxi Emperor led 100,000 troops intoMongolia. Galdan fled from the Kherlen only to be caught by another Qing army attacking from the west. He was defeated in the ensuingBattle of Jao Modo near the upperTuul River. Galdan's wife,Anu, was killed and the Qing army captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with a small handful of followers. In 1697 he died in the Altai Mountains nearKhovd on 4 April. Back in Dzungaria, his nephewTsewang Rabtan, who had revolted in 1689, was already in control as of 1691.[61] Outer Mongolia was thus incorporated into the Qing Empire, and the Khalkha leaders returned to Outer Mongolia as Qing vassals. A Qing garrison was installed at Ulaanbaatar. The Qing forces occupiedHami but did not advance into Dzungaria. The Dzungars later expanded into Tibet and Kazakhstan, but they too were conquered by the Qing dynasty in 1755, and all resistance was crushed by 1758.[62]
北元遼陽省平章劉益、王右丞等欲歸附大明，慮遷居民，以遼陽本我地，若我國請命，可免遷徙，遣使來告。
sent by Esen-tayisi with a document wherein he called himself Great Qayan T'ien-sheng of the. Great Yuan.s The document was dated the first.
明朝人把退据蒙古高原的北元政权及其治下的蒙古族称为鞑靼。
而元人自脱古斯帖木兒被秋以後，內爭不息。數傳之後，已不知其有國號、帝號。相繼篡立者，皆自稱為「汗」，並改國名為「韃靼」，由於其兵力已不如初返塞外時之盛，故其為患也輕。
卓里克圖汗，也無漢語廟號。此後蒙古歷代諸汗雖然族系不同，但都是只有蒙語尊號或諡號，而不再有漢語廟號。元朝漢語年號至天元而止，卓里克圖汗不立漢語年號，以後的蒙古諸汗也不再建立漢語年號。
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