Great Satraps Mahakṣatrapa
60 BCE–2nd century CE
South-Asia 0-40 CE SATAVAHANAS PANDYAS AY CHOLAS CHERAS CHUTUS YUEZHIS WESTERN SATRAPS MALAVAS YAUDHEYAS MAHAMEGA- VAHANA SAMATATAS INDO- PARTHIANS HAN DYNASTY ◁ ▷ The Northern Satraps ruled the area fromEastern Punjab toMathura.[1] Approximate location and neighbouring polities, early 1st century CE.
Capital	Mathura Taxila
Religion	Buddhism Hinduism Jainism
Government	Monarchy
Historical era	Antiquity
• Established	60 BCE
• Disestablished	2nd century CE
Preceded by Succeeded by Indo-Greeks Indo-Scythians Mitra dynasty Indo-Parthians Kushan Empire
Today part of	India Pakistan

TheNorthern Satraps (Brahmi:,Kṣatrapa, "Satraps" or,Mahakṣatrapa, "GreatSatraps"), or sometimesSatraps of Mathura,^[2] orNorthern Sakas,^[1] are a dynasty ofIndo-Scythian ("Saka") rulers who held sway over the area ofPunjab andMathura after the decline of theIndo-Greeks, from the end of the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century CE. They are called "Northern Satraps" in modern historiography to differentiate them from the "Western Satraps", who ruled inSindh,Gujarat andMalwa at roughly the same time and until the 4th century CE. They are thought to have replaced the last of theIndo-Greek kings in the Punjab region, as well as theMitra dynasty and theDatta dynasty of local Indian rulers in Mathura.

The Northern Satraps were probably displaced by, or became vassals of, theKushans from the time ofVima Kadphises, who is known to have ruled inMathura in 90–100 CE, and they are known to have acted as Satraps and Great Satraps in the Mathura region for his successorKanishka (127–150 CE).

In central India, theIndo-Scythians are thought to have conquered the area ofMathura over Indian kings, presumably theDatta dynasty, around 60 BCE. Due to being under the scrutiny of theKushan Empire, as asatrapy and not wholly independent, they were called the Northern Satraps. Some of their first satraps wereHagamasha andHagana, they were in turn followed byRajuvula who gained the title Mahakshatrapa or great satrap. However, according to some authors, Rajuvula may have been first.^{[citation needed]}

Rajuvula is considered as one of the main Northern Satraps. He was a GreatSatrap (Mahakshatrapa) who ruled in the area ofMathura in northernIndia in the years around 10 CE, under the authority of the Indo-Scythian kingAzilises.^[6] In Mathura, he sometimes used the term "Basileus" (king) next to his title of Satrap, which implies a higher level of autonomy from the Indo-Scythian center in northwesternIndia.^[6] On the obverse of his coinage, he often uses in theGreek script the title "King of Kings, the Saviour".^[7][2]

In Mathura, Rajuvula established the famousMathura lion capital, now in theBritish Museum, which confirms the presence of Northern Satraps in Mathura, and sheds some light on the relationships between the various satraps of Northern India.^[8] His coins are found nearSankassa along theGanges and inEastern Punjab. Their style is derived from theIndo-Greek types ofStrato II.^[8][6] Rajuvula conquered the last remaining Indo-Greek kingdom, underStrato II, around 10 CE, and took his capital city,Sagala. Numerous coins of Rajuvula have been found in company with the coins of the Strato group in theEastern Punjab (to the east of theJhelum) and also in theMathura area:^[9] for example, 96 coins of Strato II were found in Mathura in conjunction with coins ofRajuvula, who also imitated the designs of Strato II in the majority of his issues.^[10]

The coinage of the period, such as that of Rajuvula, tends to become very crude and barbarized in style. It is also very much debased, the silver content becoming lower and lower, in exchange for a higher proportion of bronze, an alloying technique (billon) suggesting less than wealthy finances.

TheMathura lion capital, an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital in crude style, fromMathura in Central India, and dated to the 1st century CE, describes inkharoshthi the gift of astupa with a relic of the Buddha, by QueenNadasi Kasa, the wife of the Indo-Scythian ruler of Mathura,Rajuvula.^{[citation needed]}

The capital describes, among other donations, the gift of astupa with a relic of theBuddha, by QueenAyasia, the "chief queen of the Indo-Scythian ruler ofMathura, satrapRajuvula". She is mentioned as the "daughter ofKharahostes" (See:Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions). The lion capital also mentions the genealogy of several Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura. It mentionsSodasa, son of Rajuvula, who succeeded him and also made Mathura his capital.^{[citation needed]}

Sodasa, son of Rajuvula, seems to have replaced his father in Mathura, whileBhadayasa ruled as Basileus in EasternPunjab.^[13][14][15] Bhadayasa has some of the nicest coins of the Northern Satraps, in direct inspiration from the coins of the lastIndo-Greek kings.^{[citation needed]}

The coinage of Sodasa is cruder and of local content: it represents aLakshmi standing between two symbols on the obverse with an inscription aroundMahakhatapasa putasa Khatapasa Sodasasa "Satrap Sodassa, son of the Great Satrap". On the reverse is a standing Abhiseka Lakshmi (Lakshmi standing facing a Lotus flower with twin stalks and leaves) anointed by two elephants sprinkling water, as on the coins ofAzilises.^[13][16]

Sodasa is also known from various inscriptions where he is mentioned as ruler in Mathura, such as theKankali Tila tablet of Sodasa.

In what has been described as "the great linguisticalparadox of India",Sanskrit inscriptions first appeared much later thanPrakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.^[18] This is because Prakrit, in its multiple variants, had been favoured since the time of the influentialEdicts of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE).^[18]

Besides a few examples from the 1st century BCE, most of the early Sanskrit inscriptions date to the time of theIndo-Scythian rulers, either the Northern Satraps aroundMathura for the earliest ones, or, slightly later, the closely relatedWestern Satraps in western and central India.^[19][20] It is thought that they became promoters of Sanskrit as a way to show their attachment to Indian culture.^[20] According to Salomon "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite".^[21]

The Sanskrit inscriptions inMathura (Uttar Pradesh) are dated to the 1st and 2nd-century CE.^[19] The earliest of these, states Salomon, are attributed toSodasa from the early years of 1st-century CE. Of the Mathura inscriptions, the most significant is theMora Well Inscription.^[19] In a manner similar to theHathibada inscription, the Mora well inscription is a dedication inscription and is linked to theVaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. It mentions a stone shrine (temple), pratima (murti, images) and calls the five Vrishnis asbhagavatam.^[19][22] There are many other Mathura Sanskrit inscriptions overlapping the era of Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and early Kushanas, although they are still dwarfed by the number of contemporary inscriptions inPrakrit.^[19] Other significant 1st-century inscriptions in reasonably good classical Sanskrit include theVasu Doorjamb Inscription and theMountain Temple inscription.^[23] The early ones are related to the Brahmanical and possiblyJain traditions, as in the case of an inscription fromKankali Tila,^[24][25] and none are Buddhist.

The development of Sanskrit epigraphy in western India under the Western Satrap, is also thought to have been the result of the influence of the Northern Satraps on their western relatives.^[26]

Several successors are known to have ruled as vassals to the Kushans, such as the Mahakshatrapa ("Great Satrap")Kharapallana and the Kshatrapa ("Satrap")Vanaspara, who are known from an inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year ofKanishka (c. 130 CE), in which Kanishka mentions they are the governors of the eastern parts of his Empire, while a "General Lala" and Satraps Vespasi and Liaka are put in charge of the north.^[27][28][29] The inscription was discovered on an early statue of aBoddhisattva, theSarnath Bala Boddhisattva, now in the Sarnath Museum .^[30]

From around 70 BCE, the region of Mathura fell to the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps underHagamasha,Hagana and thenRajuvula.^[31] During this time, Mathura is described as "a great center ofŚaka culture in India".^[32] Little is known precisely from that period on terms of artistic creation. The Indo-ScythianRajuvula, ruler of Mathura, created coins which were copies of the contemporaryIndo-Greek rulerStrato II, with effigy of the king and representation ofAthena on the obverse.^[5] Indo-Scythians are known to have sponsored Buddhism, but also other religions, as visible from their inscriptions and archaeological remains in northwestern and western India, as well as from their contributions to pre-Kushana sculpture in Mathura.^[33] Mathura became part of the Kushan Empire from the reign ofVima Kadphises (90-100 CE) and then became the southern capital of the Kushan Empire.

Some works of art dated to the end of the 1st century BCE show very delicate workmanship, such as the sculptures of Yakshis.^[34] A the very end of this period the Indo-Scythian ruler Rajuvula is also known for the famousMathura lion capital which records events of the Indo-Scythian dynasty as well as their support of Buddhism. It is also an interesting example of the state of artistic attainment in the city of Mathura at the turn of our era. The capital portrays two lions reminiscent of the lions of thePillars of Ashoka, but in a much cruder style. It also displays at its center a Buddhisttriratana symbol, further confirming the involvement of Indo-Scythian rulers with Buddhism. The triratna is contained in aflame palmette, an element of Hellenistic iconography, and an example ofHellenistic influence on Indian art.^[35]

The fact that the Mathura lion capital is inscribed inKharoshthi, a script used in the far northwest around the area ofGandhara, attests to the presence of northwestern artists at that time in Mathura.^[36]

• 
  Yashi with onlookers, dated 20 BCE.^[37]
• 
  Yashi with onlookers (detail), dated 20 BCE.
• 
  Yashi with onlookers (detail), dated 20 BCE.
• 
  Yashi with onlookers (detail), dated 20 BCE.

The abundance of dedicatory inscriptions in the name ofSodasa, the Indo-Scythian ruler of Mathura, and son of Rajuvula (eight such inscriptions are known, often on sculptural works),^[38] and the fact that Sodasa is known through his coinage as well as through his relations with other Indo-Scythian rulers whose dates are known, means that Sodasa functions as a historic marker to ascertain the sculptural styles at Mathura during his rule, in the first half of the 1st century CE.^[39][35] These inscriptions also correspond to some of the first known epigraphical inscriptions inSanskrit.^[18][40] The next historical marker corresponds to the reign ofKanishka under the Kushans, whose reign began circa 127 CE.^[39] The sculptural styles at Mathura during the reign of Sodasa are quite distinctive, and significantly different from the style of the previous period circa 50 BCE, or the styles of the later period of the Kushan Empire in the 2nd century CE.^[39]

Mora sculptures (c. 15 CE)

TheMora well inscription of Great SatrapSodasa (15 CE) is associated with three statue remains and a decorated doorjamb, all thought to be related to a temple built for theVrishni heroes.^[41] Left: torso said to be probably a figure of one of the five Vrishni heroes, Mora, circa 15 CE,Mathura Museum.^{[42][43][44][45]} Right: Mora carved doorjamb withgrapevine design, also circa 15 CE.^[46]

Several examples of in-the-round statuary have been found from the period of Sodasa, such as the torsos of "Vrishni heroes", discovered in Mora, about 7 kilometers west of Mathura.^[47] These statues are mentioned in theMora Well Inscription nearby, made in the name of the Northern SatrapSodasa circa 15 CE, in which they are calledBhagavatam.^[48][49][50] The statue fragments are thought to represent some of the five Vrishni heroes, possibly ancient kings of Mathura later assimilated toVishnu and his avatars,^[43][51] or, equally possible, the five Jain heroes led byAkrūra, which are well attested in Jain texts.^[47] In fact, the cult of the Vrishnis may have been cross-sectarian, much like the cult of the Yakshas.^[47]

The two uninscribed male torsos that were discovered are both of high craftsmanship and in Indian style and costume.^[51] They are bare-chested but wear a thick necklace, as well as heavy hearrings.^[47] The two torsos that were found are similar with minor variations, suggesting they may have been part of a series, which is coherent with the Vrishni interpretation.^[45] They share some sculptural characteristics with theYaksha statues found in Mathura and dating to the 2nd and 1st century BCE, such as the sculpting in the round, or the clothing style, but the actual details of style and workmanship clearly belong to the time of Sodasa.^[47][43] The Vrishni statues also are not of the colossal type, as they would only have stood about 1.22 meters complete.^[47] The Mora Vrishnis function as an artistic benchmark for in-the-round statues of the period.^[47]

• 
  1st Jaina TirthankaraRishabhanatha torso - Circa 1st Century
• 
  Four-fold Jain image withSuparshvanath and three otherTirthankaras - Circa 1st Century CE
• 
  Goat-headed Jain Mother Goddess, circa 1st Century CE

Kankali Tila tablet of Sodasa

JainKankali Tila tablet of Sodasa or "Amohini relief", inscribed "in the reign of Sodasa", circa 15 CE.State Museum Lucknow, SML J.1^[46]

Brahmi inscription in the tablet:

Mahakṣatrapasa Śodāsa
"GreatSatrapSodasa"

Many of the sculptures from this period are related to theJain religion, with numerous relief showing devotional scenes, such as theKankali Tila tablet of Sodasa in the name of Sodasa.^[39] Most of these are votive tablets, calledayagapata.^[52]

Jain votive plates, called "Ayagapatas", are numerous, and some of the earliest ones have been dated to circa 50-20 BCE.^[53] They were probably prototypes for the first known Mathura images of the Buddha.^[54] Many of them were found around theKankali Tila Jain stupa in Mathura.

Notable among the design motifs in theayagapatas are the pillarcapitals displaying "Persian-Achaemenian" style, with side volutes, flame palmettes, and recumbent lions or winged sphinxes.^[55][56]

• 
  TheJinaParsvanatha ayagapata, Mathura circa 15 CE,Lucknow Museum.^[54][57]
• 
  "Sihanāṃdikā ayagapata", Jain votive plate, dated 25-50 CE.^[58][59]
• 
  Jain votive plaque withJain stupa, the "Vasu Śilāpaṭa" ayagapata, 1st century CE, excavated from Kankali Tila, Mathura.^[60]
• 
  Jain relief showing monks of theardhaphalaka sect. Early 1st century CE.^[61]
• 
  Jain decorated tympanum from Kankali Tila, Mathura, 15 CE.^[62]
• 
  "Persian Achaemenian" stylecapitals appearing inayagapatas, Mathura, 15-50 CE.^[63][64][65]
• 
  TheJinaParsvanatha (detail of anayagapata), highly similar to the Isapur Buddha, Mathura circa 15 CE,Lucknow Museum.^[66][57]
• 
  Sivayasa Ayagapata, withJain stupa fragment,Kankali Tila, 75-100 CE.

A decorated doorjamb, theVasu doorjamb, dedicated to deityVāsudeva, also mentions the rule of Sodasa, and has similar carving to the Mora doorjamb, found in relation with theMora well inscription in a similar chronological and religious context. The decoration of these and many similar doorjambs from Mathura consists inscrolls of grapevines. They are all dated to the reign of Sodasa, circa 15 CE and constitute a secure dated artistic reference for the evaluation of datation of other Mathura sculptures.^[46] It has been suggested that the grapevine design had beenintroduced from the Gandhara area in the northwest, and maybe associated with the northern taste of the Satrap rulers.^[67] These designs may also be the result of the work of northern artists in Mathura.^[67] The grapevine designs of Gandhara are generally considered as originating fromHellenistic art.^[68]

• 
  TheVasu doorjamb, dedicated toVāsudeva "in the reign of Sodasa",Mathura, circa 15 CE.Mathura Museum, GMM 13.367^[46]
• 
  Reliefs of theMora doorjamb withgrapevine design, Mora, nearMathura, circa 15 CE.State Museum Lucknow, SML J.526.^[46] Similar scroll designs are knownfrom Gandhara,from Pataliputra, andfrom Greco-Roman art.
• 
  Garland bearers and Buddhist "Romaka"Jataka, in which the Buddha in a previous life was apigeon.^[69] 25-50 CE.^[70] Similargarland-bearer designs are knownfrom Gandhara,from Amaravati andfrom Greco-Roman art.

The calligraphy of theBrahmi script had remained virtually unchanged from the time of theMaurya Empire to the end of the 1st century BCE.^[71] The Indo-Scythians, following their establishment in northern India introduced "revolutionary changes" in the way Brahmi was written.^[71] In the 1st century BCE, the shape of Brahmi characters became more angular, and the vertical segments of letters were equalized, a phenomenon which is clearly visible in coin legends and made the script visually more similarly to Greek.^[71] In this new typeface, the letter were "neat and well-formed".^[71] The probable introduction of ink and pen writing, with the characteristic thickenned start of each stroke generated by the usage of ink, was reproduced in the calligraphy of stone inscriptions by the creation of a triangle-shaped form at the beginning of each stroke.^[71][74] This new writing style is particularly visible in the numerous dedicatory inscriptions made in Mathura, in association with devotional works of art.^[71] This new calligraphy of the Brahmi script was adopted in the rest of the subcontinent of the next half century.^[71] The "new-pen-style" initiated a rapid evolution of the script from the 1st century CE, with regional variations starting to emerge.^[71]

From around the 2nd-1st century BCE atBharhut andSanchi, scenes of the life of the Buddha, or sometimes of his previous lives, had been illustratedwithout showing the Buddha himself, except for some of his symbols such as the empty throne, or theChankrama pathway.^[76] This artistic device ended with the sudden appearance of the Buddha, probably rather simultaneously inGandhara andMathura, at the turn of the millennium.^[76]

Possibly the first known representation of the Buddha (theBimaran casket and theTillya Tepe Buddhist coin are other candidates), the "Isapur Buddha" is also dated on stylistic grounds to the reign of Sodasa, circa 15 CE; he is shown on a relief in a canonical scene known as"Lokapalas offer Alms Bowls to the Buddha Sakyamuni".^[77] The symbolism of this early statue is still tentative, drawing heavily on the earlier, especially Jain, pictural traditions of Mathura, still far from the exuberant standardized designs of theKushan Empire.^[77] It is rather unassuming and not yet monumental compared to the Buddha sculptures of the following century, and may represent one of the first attempts to create a human icon, marking an evolution from the splendid aniconic tradition of Buddhist art in respect to the person of the Buddha, which can be seen in the art of Sanchi and Bharhut.^[77] This depiction of the Buddha is highly similar toJain images of the period, such asthe relief ofJinaParsvanatha on anayagapata, also dated to circa 15 CE.^[66][57]

It is thought that the images of Jain saints, which can be seen in Mathura from the 1st century BCE, were prototypes for the first Mathura images of the Buddha, since the attitudes are very similar, and the almost transparent very thin garment of the Buddha not much different visually from the nakedness of theJinas.^[54] Here the Buddha is not wearing the monastic robe which would become characteristic of many of the later Buddha images.^[54] The cross-legged sitting posture may have derived from earlier reliefs of cross-legged ascetics or teachers at Bharhut, Sanchi andBodh Gaya.^[78] It has also been suggested that the cross-legged Buddhas may have derived from the depictions of seated Scythian kings from the northwest, as visible in the coinage ofMaues (90-80 BCE) orAzes (57-10 BC).^[78]

There has been a recurring debate about the exact identity of these Mathura statues, some claiming that they are only statues ofBodhisattavas, which is indeed the exact term used in most of the inscriptions of the statues found in Mathura. Only one or two statues of the Mathura type are known to mention the Buddha himself.^[79] This could be in conformity with an ancient Buddhist prohibition against showing the Buddha himself in human form, otherwise known asaniconism in Buddhism, expressed in theSarvastivadavinaya (rules of the early Buddhist school of theSarvastivada):""Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant Bodhisattva. Is that acceptable?" The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava"".^[80] However the scenes in the Isapur Buddha and the laterIndrasala Buddha (dated 50-100 CE), refer to events which are considered to have happenedafter the Buddha's enlightenment, and therefore probably represent the Buddha rather than his younger self as a Bodhisattava, or a simple attendant Bodhisattva.^[81]

The Buddhist "Indrasala architrave", dated 50-100 CE, with a scene of the Buddha at theIndrasala Cave being attended byIndra, and a scene of devotion to theBodhi Tree on the other side, is another example of the still hesitant handling of the human icon of the Buddha in the Buddhist art of Mathura.^[82] The Buddhist character of this architrave is clearly demonstrated by the depiction of theBodhi Tree inside its specially built temple atBodh Gaya, a regular scene of Buddhist since the reliefs ofBharhut andSanchi.^[82] The depiction of the Buddha in meditation in theIndrasala Cave is also characteristically Buddhist.^[82] The Buddha already has the attributes, if not the style, of the later "Kapardin" statues, except for the absence of ahalo.^[83]

Besides the hero cult of theVrishni heroes or the cross-sectarian cult of theYakshas,Hindu art only started to develop fully from the 1st to the 2nd century CE, and there are only very few examples of artistic representation before that time.^[85] The three Vedic godsIndra,Brahma andSurya were actually first depicted in Buddhist sculpture, as attendants in scenes commemorating the life of the Buddha, even when the Buddha himself was not yet shown in human formbut only through his symbols, such as the scenes of his Birth, hisDescent from the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, or his retreat in the Indrasala Cave.^[85] These Vedic deities appear in Buddhist reliefs at Mathura from around the 1st century CE, such asIndra attending the Buddha at Indrasala Cave, where Indra is shown with amitre-like crown, and joining hands.^[85]

Early "Kapardin" statuary

Katra fragment of a Buddha stele in the name of a "Kshatrapa lady" named Naṃda (Naṃdaye Kshatrapa).^[83][86][87]

"Katra Bodhisattava stele" with inscription, dated to the Northern Satraps period.^[83]

The earliest types of "Kapardin" statuary (named after the "kapardin", the characteristic tuft of coiled hair of the Buddha) showing the Buddha with attendants are thought to be pre-Kushan, dating to the time of the "Kshatrapas" or Northern Satraps.^[83] Various broken bases of Buddha statues with inscriptions have been attributed to the Kshatrapas.^[83] A fragment of such a stele was found with the mention of the name of the donor as a "Kshatrapa lady" named Naṃda who dedicated the Bodhisattva image "for the welfare and happiness of all sentient beings for the acceptance of theSarvastivadas", and it is considered as contemporary with the famous "Katra stele".^[83][87]

One of these early examples shows the Buddha being worshipped by the GodsBrahma andIndra.^[83]

The famous "Katra Bodhisattava stele" is the only fully intact image of a "Kapardin" Bodhisattva remaining from the Kshatrapa period, and is considered as the foundation type of the "Kapardin" Buddha imagery, and is the "classical statement of the type".^[83]

In conclusion, the canonical type of the seated Bodhisattva with attendants commonly known as the "Kapardin" type, seems to have developed during the time the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps were still ruling in Mathura, before the arrival of the Kushans.^[88] This type continued during the Kushan period, down to the time ofHuvishka, before being overtaken by fully-dressed types of Buddha statuary depicting the Buddha wearing the monastic coat "Samghati".^[88]

Ruler	Image	Title	Approx. dates	Mentions
Hagamasha		Satrap	1st century BCE	In the archaeological excavations ofSonkh, nearMathura, the earliest coins of the Kshatrapa levels were those of Hagamasha.[89]
Hagana		Satrap	1st century BCE
Rajuvula		Great Satrap	early 1st century BCE
Bhadayasa		Satrap	1st century CE	Possible successor of Rajuvula in Eastern Punjab
Sodasa		Satrap	1st century CE	Son of Rajuvula in Mathura
Kharapallana		Great Satrap	c. CE 130	Great Satrap for Kushan rulerKanishka I
Vanaspara		Satrap	c. CE 130	Satrap for Kushan rulerKanishka I

• 
  Coin of satrap Hagamasha.Obv. Horse to the left.Rev. Standing figure with symbols, legendKhatapasa Hagāmashasa. 1st century BCE.
• 
  Joint coin of Hagana and Hagamasha.Obv.: Horse to left.Rev. Thunderbolt, legendKhatapāna Hagānasa Hagāmashasa. 1st century BCE.
• 
  Coin ofRajuvula, c. 10 CE
• 
  Coin ofBhadrayasha, early 1st century CE
• 
  Coin ofSodasa, early 1st century CE

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