"Democratic Republic of Vietnam" redirects here. Not to be confused with the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, commonly known asVietnam; for other uses, seeVietnam (disambiguation).
From the beginning, the communist-led Việt Minhsought to consolidate power by purging other rival groups. Meanwhile, France moved in toreassert its colonial dominance over Vietnam in theaftermath of WW2, eventually prompting theFirst Indochina War in December 1946. During thisguerrilla war, the Việt Minh captured and controlled most of the rural areas in Vietnam, which led toFrench defeat in 1954. The negotiations in theGeneva Conference that year ended the war and affirmed Vietnamese independence. The Geneva Accords provisionally divided the country into a northern zone and a southern zone along the17th parallel, stipulating general elections scheduled for July 1956 to "bring about the unification of Viet-Nam".[8] The northern zone was controlled by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and became commonly called North Vietnam, while the southern zone, under control of the non-communistState of Vietnam, was commonly calledSouth Vietnam.
Supervision of the implementation of the Geneva Accords was the responsibility of aninternational commission consisting ofIndia,Canada, andPoland, respectively representing thenon-aligned, thecapitalist, and thecommunist blocs. TheUnited States, which did not sign the Geneva Accords, stated that it "shall continue to seek to achieve unity through free elections supervised by theUnited Nations to ensure that they are conducted fairly".[9] Meanwhile, theState of Vietnam strongly opposed the partition of the country,[10] with its prime ministerNgô Đình Diệm announcing in July 1955 that the State of Vietnam would not participate in elections, claiming that it had not signed the Geneva Accords and was therefore not bound by it,[11] and raising concerns that an unfair election would occur under the Việt Minh governance in North Vietnam.[10] In October 1955, Diệm's government heldits own referendum, which was widely marred byelectoral fraud, to depose Chief of StateBảo Đại and established theRepublic of Vietnam with Diệm as itsfirst president.[12][13]
The official name of the North Vietnamese state was the "Democratic Republic of Vietnam" (Vietnamese:Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa). The South was known as the "Republic of Vietnam".
Việt Nam (Vietnamese pronunciation:[vjə̀tnam]) was the name adopted by EmperorGia Long in 1804.[17] It is a variation of "Nam Việt" (南越,SouthernViệt), a name used in ancient times.[17] In 1839, EmperorMinh Mạng renamed the countryĐại Nam ("Great South").[18] In 1945, the nation's official name was changed back to "Vietnam". The name is also sometimes rendered as "Viet Nam" in English.[19] The term "North Vietnam" became common usage in 1954, when theGeneva Conference provisionally partitioned Vietnam into communist and non-communist parts.
Soon afterJapan surrendered, the Việt Minh in theAugust Revolution enteredHanoi, and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed on 2 September 1945 establishing independence and a new government for the country, replacing French rule and the Nguyễn dynasty.[21]Hồ Chí Minh became leader of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
The Democratic Republic of Vietnam claimed sovereignty over all of Vietnam, but during this time, several areas, particularly in the South, were not aligned with the Viet Minh. The successive collapse of French, then Japanese power, followed by the disputes among the political factions, had been accompanied by widespread violence in the countryside.[22][23] On 16 August 1945, Hồ Chí Minh organized the National Congress in Tân Trào. The Congress adopted 10 major policies of theViệt Minh, passing the General Uprising Order, selecting thenational flag of Vietnam, choosing the national anthem and selecting the National Committee for the Liberation of Vietnam, which later became the Provisional Revolutionary Government led by Hồ Chí Minh. On 12 September 1945, the first British troops arrived in Saigon, and on 23 September 1945, French troops occupied the police stations, the post office, and other public buildings. The salient political fact of life in Northern Vietnam was that theChinese Nationalist Army occupied it, and the Chinese presence had forced Hồ Chí Minh and the Việt Minh to accommodate Kuomintang-supported Vietnamese nationalists.
In January 1946, the Việt Minh heldan election, mainly in the North, to establish a National Assembly. There were few competitive races and the party makeup of the Assembly was determined in advance of the vote.[note 2] Despite not joining the election, theVietnamese Nationalist Party (Việt Quốc) and theVietnam Revolutionary League (Việt Cách) were given 70 seats in the National Assembly in an effort to establish an inclusive government.[27][28] Former Prime MinisterTrần Trọng Kim claimed there were places where people were forced to vote for the Việt Minh.[29][30] The Vietnamese Nationalist Party kidnapped Giáp and the Propaganda MinisterTrần Huy Liệu and held them for three weeks until Ho Chi Minh agreed to remove Giáp and Liệu from the cabinet. As a result, the Vietnamese Nationalist Party'sVũ Hồng Khanh became defence minister, with Giáp as his deputy.
In June 1946, Chinese Nationalist troops evacuated Hanoi, and on 15 June, the last detachments embarked at Haiphong. After the departure of the British in 1946, the French controlled a part ofCochinchina,South Central Coast andCentral Highlands since the end to theSouthern Resistance War. The Viet Minh sought to consolidate power by terrorizing and purging rival Vietnamesenationalist groups andTrotskyist activists.[31][32][33][34] In 1946, the Franco-Chinese andHo–Sainteny Agreements enabled French forces to replace the Chinese north of the 16th parallel and facilitated a coexistence between the DRV and the French that strengthened the Viet Minh while undermining the nationalists.[35][36] That summer, the Viet Minh colluded with French forces to eliminate nationalists, targeted for their ardent anti-colonialism.[37][31]: 205–207 [38]: 175–177 [39]: 699–700
When the Chinese nationalist army withdrew fromVietnam on 15 June 1946, in one way or another, Võ Nguyễn Giáp decided that the Việt Minh had to completely control the government. Võ Nguyễn Giáp began immediate action with the goal of spreading Việt Minh leadership. The Allied Powers were supported by the Vietnamese Nationalist Party. According to Cecil B. Currey, this organization, which borrowed the revolutionary name of Vietnamese Nationalist Party of 1930, was founded byNguyễn Thái Học and, according to David G. Marr, the Vietnamese Communist Party under Hồ Chí Minh tried to ban the Vietnamese Nationalist Party.[40] Võ Nguyễn Giáp gradually sought to marginalize the opposition such as the pro-Japan nationalist groups, theTrotskyists, the anti-French nationalists, and a catholic group known as the "Catholic Soldiers". On 19 June 1946, the Việt Minh Journal reportedly vehemently claimed "reactionaries sabotage the Franco-Vietnamese preliminary agreement on 6 March".
When France declared Cochinchina, the southern third of Vietnam, a separate state as the "Autonomous Republic of Cochinchina" in June 1946, Vietnamese nationalists reacted with fury. In November, the National Assembly adopted the first Constitution of the Republic.[41]
Flag of the DRV during the Indochina WarHo Chi Minh (seated, right) withTôn Đức Thắng (seated, left) and other DRV leaders in a liberated zone of northern Vietnam during theFirst Indochina War.
In the wake of theHai Phong incident and the deterioration of theFontainebleau Agreements, the Frenchreoccupied Hanoi and theFirst Indochina War (1946–54) followed, during which many urban areas fell under French control. Following theChinese Communist Revolution (1946–50), Chinese communist forces arrived on the border in 1949. Chinese aid revived the fortunes of the Viet Minh and transformed it from a guerrilla militia into astanding army. The outbreak of theKorean War in June 1950 transformed what had been an anti-colonial struggle into aCold War battleground, with the U.S. providing financial support to the French.
View from the northern side of the bridge across theBến Hải River, which separated North and South Vietnam after the 1954 Geneva Accords.Viet Minh troops returning to Hanoi after the French withdrawal on October 9, 1954
Following the partition of Vietnam in 1954 at the end of theFirst Indochina War, more than one million North Vietnamese migrated to South Vietnam,[42] under the U.S.-led evacuation campaign namedOperation Passage to Freedom,[43] with an estimated 60% of the north's one million Catholics fleeing south.[44][45] The Catholic migration is attributed to an expectation of persecution ofCatholics by the North Vietnamese government, as well as publicity employed by the Saigon government of the PresidentNgo Dinh Diem.[46] The CIA ran a propaganda campaign to get Catholics to come to the south. However ColonelEdward Lansdale, the man credited with the campaign, rejected the notion that his campaign had much effect on popular sentiment.[47] The Viet Minh sought to detain or otherwise prevent would-be refugees from leaving, such as through intimidation through military presence, shutting down ferry services and water traffic, or prohibiting mass gatherings.[48] Concurrently, between 14,000 and 45,000 civilians and approximately 100,000 Viet Minh fighters moved in the opposite direction.[44][49][50]
"The administrative units in the Democratic Republic of Vietnam are as follows:
The country is divided into provinces (tỉnh), autonomous regions (khu tự trị), and centrally run cities (thành phố trực thuộc trung ương);
The province is divided into districts (huyện), cities (thành phố), and towns (thị xã);
The district is divided into communes (xã) and townships (thị trấn).
Administrative units in the autonomous region are statutory."
— — Article 78, Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam – 1959 (Điều 78, Hiến pháp Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa – 1959).
Autonomous regions
The autonomous regions of North Vietnam on a map of its provinces created by the government of theUnited States.
North Vietnam established a system ofautonomous regions (Vietnamese:Khu tự trị) similar to (and based on) theautonomous regions of China.[55][56][57] In recognising the traditional separatism of tribal minorities, this policy of accommodationism gave them self-government in exchange for acceptance of Hanoi's control.[58] These regions existed from 1955 but following the merger of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the Republic of South Vietnam the system of autonomous regions was not continued and were fully abolished by 1978.[55]
List of North Vietnamese autonomous regions and their subsidiary provinces:[55]
Countries that recognized the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) as of 1973.Ho Chi Minh with East GermanYoung Pioneers nearEast Berlin, 1957DRV delegation led by Ho Chi Minh on a visit toSocialist Republic of Romania in 1957.
The Democratic Republic of Vietnam was diplomatically isolated by many capitalist states, and many other anti-communist states worldwide throughout most of the North's history, as these states extended recognition only to the anti-communist government ofSouth Vietnam. North Vietnam however, was recognized by almost all Communist countries, such as theSoviet Union and other Socialist countries ofEastern Europe andCentral Asia, China,North Korea, andCuba, and received aid from these nations. North Vietnam refused to establish diplomatic relations withYugoslavia from 1950 to 1957, perhaps reflecting Hanoi's deference to the Soviet line on the Yugoslav government ofJosip Broz Tito, and North Vietnamese officials continued to be critical of Tito after relations were established.[59]
Several non-aligned countries also recognized North Vietnam. Similar toIndia, most accorded North Vietnamde facto rather thande jure (formal) recognition.[60] In the case ofAlgeria however, relations between the DRV and Algeria were much closer as a result of clandestine weapon transfers from the former to the latter during theAlgerian War, with Algeria placing a draft resolution in the 1973 summit of theNon-Aligned Movement calling on its members to support the DRV andPRG.[61]
In 1969, Sweden became the first Western country to extend full diplomatic recognition to North Vietnam.[62] Many other Western countries followed suit in the 1970s, such as thegovernment of Australia underGough Whitlam. By December 1972, 49 countries had established diplomatic relations with North Vietnam,[63] and in 1973 more countries such as France established or reestablished their relations with the DRV.[63]
From 1960, the North Vietnamese government went to war with theRepublic of Vietnam via its proxy theViet Cong, in an attempt to annex South Vietnam and reunify Vietnam under acommunist party.[64] North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces and supplies were sent along theHo Chi Minh trail. In 1964 the United States sent combat troops to South Vietnam to support the South Vietnamese government, but the U.S. hadadvisors there since 1950. Other nations, including Australia, theRepublic of Korea,Thailand and New Zealand also contributed troops and military aid to South Vietnam's war effort. China,DPRK and theSoviet Union provided aid to and troops in support of North Vietnamese military activities. This was known as theVietnam War, or theAmerican War in Vietnam itself (1955–75). In addition to the Viet Cong in South Vietnam, other communist insurgencies also operated within neighboringKingdom of Laos andKhmer Republic, both formerly part of the French colonial territory ofIndochina. These were thePathet Lao and theKhmer Rouge, respectively. These insurgencies were aided by the North Vietnamese government, which sent troops to fight alongside them.
The document establishing official bilateral relations betweenJapan and North Vietnam signed inParis,France, on 21 September 1973.
Despite there not being any official diplomatic ties between Japan and North Vietnam between 1954 and 1973, private exchanges were gradually being rebuilt. In March 1955 the JapaneseJapan–Vietnam Friendship Association was created and in August of that year theJapan–Vietnam Trade Association was established.[65] Meanwhile, in 1965 North VietnameseVietnam–Japan Friendship Association would be established to help maintain unofficial relations between the two countries.[65]
During theVietnam War of the 1960s and 1970s, Japan consistently encouraged a negotiated settlement at the earliest possible date. Even before the hostilities ended, it had made contact with the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) government and had reached an agreement to establish diplomatic relations in September 1973. On 21 September 1973, Japan and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) signed the "Exchange of Notes Concerning the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations Between Japan and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam" inParis, this document was in theFrench language and restored the diplomatic relations between Japan and North Vietnam.[65] On the Japanese side the document was signed byYoshihiro Nakayama, the Japanese Ambassador to France, while for the North Vietnamese side the document was signed by theCharge d'Affaires ad interim of North Vietnam to FranceVõ Văn Sung.[65] Implementation, however, was delayed by North Vietnamese demands that Japan pay the equivalent of US$45 million in World War II reparations in two yearly installments, in the form of "economic cooperation" grants. Giving in to the Vietnamese demands, Japan paid the money and opened an embassy inHanoi on 11 October 1975, following the unification of North Vietnam and South Vietnam into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.[66]
Earlier, the Japanese already gave similar funding to the South Vietnamese, which also re-established official diplomatic relations with Japan during the same period.[65]
With the re-establishment of relations between Japan and North Vietnam the Japanese agreed to resolve what are termed "unsolved problems", which after earlier negotiations inVientiane,Kingdom of Laos, these "unsolved problems" revolved around grants given by the Japanese State to North Vietnam.[65] Between 1973 and 1975 the Japanese and North Vietnamese governments held over 20 both official and unofficial meetings, on 6 October 1975 both sides finally reached and agreement and the Japanese would provide the North Vietnamese with an endowment worth 13.5 billionyen.[65] Of this money, 8.5 billion yen would be used to purchase heavy farmland cultivation machinery as well as public works provided by Japanese-owned corporations.[65]
After diplomatic relations were re-established, in 1975, Japan would open an embassy in Hanoi and North Vietnam would open an embassy in Tokyo.[65]
Land reform was an integral part of the Viet Minh and communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam. A Viet Minh Land Reform Law of 4 December 1953 called for (1) confiscation of land belonging to landlords who were enemies of the regime; (2) requisition of land from landlords not judged to be enemies; and (3) purchase with payment in bonds. The land reform was carried out from 1953 to 1956. Some farming areas did not undergo land reform but only rent reduction and the highland areas occupied by minority peoples were not substantially impacted. Some land was retained by the government but most was distributed without payment with priority given to Viet Minh fighters and their families.[67] The total number of rural people impacted by the land reform program was more than 4 million. The rent reduction program impacted nearly 8 million people.[68]
Results
The land reform program was a success in terms of distributing much land to poor and landless peasants and reducing or eliminating the land holdings oflandlords (địa chủ) and rich peasants. By 1960, there were 40,000 cooperatives spanning nearly nine-tenths of all farmland. The program, proceeded by a Three Year Plan (1957–1960), lifted agricultural production to 5.4 million tonnes or over double pre-Indochina War levels.[69]
However, it was carried out with violence and repression primarily directed against large landowners identified, sometimes incorrectly, as landlords.[70] Executions and imprisonment of persons classified as "reactionary and evil landlords" were contemplated from the beginning of the land reform program. APolitburo document dated 4 May 1953 said that the planned executions were "fixed in principle at the ratio of one per one thousand people of the total population".[71]
The number of persons actually executed by cadre carrying out the land reform program has been variously estimated, with some ranging up to 200,000.[72] However, other scholarship has concluded that the higher estimates were based on political propaganda which also emanated from South Vietnam with the support of the US, and that the actual total of those executed was significantly lower.Gareth Porter estimated that between 800 and 2,500 people were executed, citing a South Vietnamese government document released in 1959, that Porter says is consistent with an estimate of around 1,500 executions.[73] In 2007, scholar Balasz Szalontai wrote that documents of Hungarian diplomats living in North Vietnam at the time of the land reform provided a number of the 62,182 ‘landlords’ identified by the land reform cadres, of whom 1,337 were executed by December 1955, including 1,175 executions during the first stage, which was the rent-reduction campaign, and 162 executions during the second stage, which was the land reform proper. The third stage in early 1956, likely resulted in more deaths than the previous stages as the repression was more intense. Szalontai writes that these documents support estimates by scholarEdwin E. Moise, who concluded that "the total number of people executed was probably on the rough order of 5,000 and almost certainly between 3,000 and 15,000".[74] Moise later came up with a revised estimate of 13,500 including people who committed suicide following arrest.[75][76] Economist Vo Nhan Tri reported uncovering a document in the central party archives which put the number of wrongful executions at 15,000. From discussions with party cadres, Vo Nhan Tri concluded that the overall number of deaths was considerably higher than this figure.[77]
In early 1956, North Vietnam initiated a "correction of errors" which put an end to the land reform, and to rectify the mistakes and damage done. On 18 August 1956, North Vietnamese leaderHo Chi Minh apologised and acknowledged the serious errors the government had made in the land reform. Too many farmers, he also said, had been incorrectly classified as "landlords" and executed or imprisoned and too many mistakes has been made in the process of redistributing land.[78] Severe rioting protesting the excesses of the land reform broke out in November 1956 in one largely Catholic rural district, leading to 1,000 deaths or injuries, and several thousand imprisoned. As part of the correction campaign, as many as 23,748 political prisoners were released by North Vietnam by September 1957.[79] By 1958, the correction campaign had resulted in the return of land to many of those harmed by the land reform.[78]
Concurrently with the land reform campaign and the end of the First Indochina War, over 12,000 people died from famine in Viet-Minh controlled zones by the end of 1954 due to economic turmoil in combination with natural disasters, floods, and crop failures.[80]
Collective farming
The ultimate objective of the land reform program of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam government was not to achieve equitable distribution of farmland but rather the organization of all farmers into co-operatives in which land and other factors of agricultural production would be owned and used collectively.[81]The first steps after the 1953–1956 land reform were the encouragement by the government of labor exchanges in which farmers would unite to exchange labor; secondly in 1958 and 1959 was the formation of "low level cooperatives" in which farmers cooperated in production. By 1961, 86 percent of farmers were members of low-level cooperatives. The third step beginning in 1961 was to organize "high level cooperatives", true collective farming in which land and resources were utilized collectively without individual ownership of land.[82] By 1971, the great majority of farmers in North Vietnam were organized into high-level cooperatives. After the reunification of Vietnam, collective farms were abandoned gradually in the 1980s and 1990s.[83]
^No clear number due to internal turmoil in 1945, circa 20 million population based on last reliable estimate of 22.6 million people in 1943 (Barbieri, p. 625) and her estimate of 400,000 to 2 million dying from 1944–45 famine.
^Although former emperor Bao Dai was also popular at this time and won a seat in the Assembly, the election did not allow voters to express a preference between Bao Dai and Ho Chi Minh. It was held publicly in northern and central Vietnam, but secretly in Cochinchina, the southern third of Vietnam. There was minimal campaigning and most voters had no idea who the candidates were.[24] In many districts, a single candidate ran unopposed.[25] Party representation in the Assembly was publicly announced before the election was held.[26]
^From the start of theFirst Indochina War until French defeat in 1954, the DRV lost control over major cities but maintained control of scattered rural areas, then taking the role ofmaquis). DRV during this time was considered arump state, but it did not cease to exist. Communist China and the Soviet Union recognized the DRV in 1950.
^The central governmentde facto operated from the mountainous province ofTuyên Quang between 1947 and 1954.
^Guillemot, François (2019). "The Lessons of Yên Bái, or the "Fascist" Temptation: How the Đại Việt Parties Rethought Anticolonial Nationalist Revolutionary Action, 1932–1945".Journal of Vietnamese Studies.14 (3):43–78.doi:10.1525/vs.2019.14.3.43.
^ab"Lời tuyên bố truyền thanh của Thủ tướng Chánh phủ ngày 16-7-1955 về hiệp định Genève và vấn đề thống nhất đất nước"; "Tuyên ngôn của Chánh phủ Quốc gia Việt Nam ngày 9-8-1955 về vấn đề thống nhất lãnh thổ"".Con đường Chính nghĩa: Độc lập, Dân chủ (in Vietnamese). Vol. II. Saigon: Sở Báo chí Thông tin, Phủ Tổng thống. 1956. pp. 11–13.
^Moses, A. Dirk (2008).Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History. Berghahn Books. p. 213.ISBN978-1845454524.
^Stanley Karnow. Vietnam: A History. New York, NY. Penguin, 1991, p. 163.
^abGuillemot, François (2004). "Au coeur de la fracture vietnamienne : l'élimination de l'opposition nationaliste et anticolonialiste dans le Nord du Vietnam (1945–1946)". In Goscha, Christopher E.; de Tréglodé, Benoît (eds.).Naissance d'un État-Parti: Le Viêt Nam depuis 1945. Paris: Les Indes savantes. pp. 175–216.ISBN9782846540643.
^Tran, Nu-Anh (2023). "Denouncing the 'Việt Cộng': Tales of revolution and betrayal in the Republic of Vietnam".Journal of Southeast Asian Studies.53 (4):686–708.doi:10.1017/S0022463422000790.
^Lindholm, Richard (1959).Viet-nam, the first five years: an international symposium. Michigan State University Press. p. 49.
^abTran, Thi Lien (November 2005). "The Catholic Question in North Vietnam".Cold War History (London: Routledge) 5 (4): 427–49.doi:10.1080/14682740500284747.
^Jacobs, Seth (2006).Cold War Mandarin: Ngo Dinh Diem and the Origins of America's War in Vietnam, 1950–1963. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN0-7425-4447-8. p. 45
^Hansen, Peter (2009). "Bắc Di Cư: Catholic Refugees from the North of Vietnam, and Their Role in the Southern Republic, 1954–1959".Journal of Vietnamese Studies.4 (3). Berkeley, California: University of California Press:182–183.doi:10.1525/vs.2009.4.3.173.
^Frankum, Ronald (2007).Operation Passage to Freedom: The United States Navy in Vietnam, 1954–55. Lubbock, Texas: Texas Tech University Press.ISBN978-0-89672-608-6. pp. 159/160/190
^Frankum, Ronald (2007).Operation Passage to Freedom: The United States Navy in Vietnam, 1954–55. Lubbock, Texas: Texas Tech University Press.ISBN978-0-89672-608-6.
^Ruane, Kevin (1998).War and Revolution in Vietnam. London: Routledge.ISBN978-1-85728-323-5.
^SarDesai, D. R. (1968),Indian Foreign Policy in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, 1947–1964, Berkeley: University of California Press, p. 194
^Huynh, Ngoc H., "The Time-Honored Friendship: A History of Vietnamese-Algerian Relations (1946–2015)" 1 May 2016.CUREJ: College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal, University of Pennsylvania,https://repository.upenn.edu/curej/214
^Gardner, Lloyd C. and Gittinger, Ted, Eds. (2004), "The Search for Peace in Vietnam, 1964–1968," Bryan, TX: Texas A&M University Press, p. 194
^abBühler, Konrad G.State succession and membership in international organizations. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. pp. 68–92.
^"Politburo's Directive Issued on May 4, 1953, on some Special Issues regarding Mass Mobilization,"Journal of Vietnamese Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2 (Summer 2010), p. 243.
^Kerkvliet, Bendedict J. Tria (1998), "Wobbly Foundations" building co-operatives in rural Vietnam, 1955–61,"South East Research, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 193–197.
^Pingali, and Vo-TungPrabhu and Vo-Tong Xuan (1992), "Vietnam: Decollectivization and Rice Productive Growth",Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol 40, No 4. pp. 702, 706–707.
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