It hosts key north European shipping lanes and is a majorfishery. The coast is a popular destination for recreation and tourism in bordering countries, and a rich source of energy resources, includingwind andwave power.
The North Sea has featured prominently in geopolitical and military affairs, particularly inNorthern Europe, from the Middle Ages to the modern era. It was also important globally through the power northern Europeans projected worldwide during much of the Middle Ages and into the modern era. The North Sea was the centre of theVikings' rise. TheHanseatic League, theDutch Republic, andBritain all sought to gain command of the North Sea and access to the world's markets and resources. As Germany's only outlet to the ocean, the North Sea was strategically important through both world wars.
The coast has diverse geology and geography. In the north, deepfjords and sheer cliffs mark much of itsNorwegian andScottish coastlines respectively, whereas in the south, the coast consists mainly of sandy beaches, estuaries of long rivers and widemudflats. Due to the dense population, heavyindustrialisation, and intense use of the sea and the area surrounding it, various environmental issues affect the sea's ecosystems. Adverse environmental issues – commonly includingoverfishing, industrial and agriculturalrunoff,dredging, and dumping, among others – have led to several efforts to prevent degradation and to safeguard long-term economic benefits.
The North Sea is more than 970 kilometres (600 mi) long and 580 kilometres (360 mi) wide, with an area of 750,000 square kilometres (290,000 sq mi) and a volume of 54,000 cubic kilometres (13,000 cu mi).[4] Around the edges of the North Sea aresizeable islands andarchipelagos, includingShetland,Orkney, and theFrisian Islands.[2] The North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as theBritish Isles. A large part of the Europeandrainage basin empties into the North Sea, including water from theBaltic Sea. The largest and most important rivers flowing into the North Sea are theElbe and theRhine –Meuse.[5] Around 185 million people live in thecatchment area ofthe rivers discharging into the North Sea encompassing some highly industrialized areas.[6]
Major features
For the most part, the sea lies on the Europeancontinental shelf with a mean depth of 90 metres (300 ft).[1][7] The only exception is theNorwegian trench, which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline fromOslo to an area north ofBergen.[1] It is between 20 and 30 kilometres (12 and 19 mi) wide and has a maximum depth of 725 metres (2,379 ft).[8]
TheDogger Bank, a vastmoraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris, rises to a mere 15 to 30 m (50 to 100 ft) below the surface.[9][10] This feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea.[1] TheLong Forties and theBroad Fourteens are large areas with roughly uniform depth infathoms (forty fathoms and fourteen fathoms or 73 and 26 m or 240 and 85 ft deep, respectively). These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate,[11] which has been alleviated by the implementation ofsatellite navigation systems.[12] TheDevil's Hole lies 320 kilometres (200 mi) east ofDundee, Scotland. The feature is a series of asymmetrical trenches between 20 and 30 kilometres (12 and 19 mi) long, one and two kilometres (0.6 and 1.2 mi) wide and up to 230 metres (750 ft) deep.[13]
On the Southwest. A line joining thePhare de Walde (Walde Lighthouse, in France, 50°59'37"N, 1°54'53"E) andLeathercoat Point (England, 51°10'01.4"N 1°24'07.8").[15] northeast of Dover.
On the Northwest. FromDunnet Head (58°40'20"N, 3°22'30"W) inScotland to Tor Ness (58°47'N) in the Island ofHoy, thence through this island to the Kame of Hoy (58°55'N) on to Breck Ness onMainland (58°58'N) through this island toCosta Head (3°14'W) and Inga Ness (59'17'N) inWestray through Westray, to Bow Head, across to Mull Head (North point ofPapa Westray) and on to Seal Skerry (North point ofNorth Ronaldsay) and thence toHorse Island (South point of theShetland Islands).
On the North. From the North point (Fethaland Point) of theMainland of the Shetland Islands, across to Graveland Ness (60°39'N) in the Island ofYell, through Yell to Gloup Ness (1°04'W) and across to Spoo Ness (60°45'N) inUnst island, through Unst toHerma Ness (60°51'N), on to the SW point of the Rumblings and toMuckle Flugga (60°51′N0°53′W / 60.850°N 0.883°W /60.850; -0.883) all these being included in the North Sea area; thence up the meridian of 0°53' West to theparallel of 61°00' North and eastward along this parallel to the coast of Norway, the whole of Viking Bank is thus included in the North Sea.
Ocean currents mainly entering via the north entrance exiting along the Norwegian coast• Localization of the tide-gauges listed •Tide times after Bergen (negative = before) • The three amphidromic centers • Coasts: marshes = green mudflats = greenish blue lagoons = bright blue dunes = yellow sea dikes= purple moraines near the coast= light brown rock-based coasts = greyish brown
The average temperature is 17 °C (63 °F) in the summer and 6 °C (43 °F) in the winter.[4] The average temperatures have been trending higher since 1988, which has been attributed toclimate change.[16][17] Air temperatures in January range on average between 0 and 4 °C (32 and 39 °F) and in July between 13 and 18 °C (55 and 64 °F). The winter months see frequent gales and storms.[1]
Thesalinity averages between 34 and 35 grams per litre (129 and 132 g/US gal) of water.[4] The salinity has the highest variability where there isfresh water inflow, such as at the Rhine and Elbe estuaries, the Baltic Sea exit and along the coast of Norway.[18]
Water circulation and tides
The main pattern to the flow of water in the North Sea is ananti-clockwise rotation along the edges.[19]
The North Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean receiving the majority ofocean current from the northwest opening, and a lesser portion of warm current from the smaller opening at the English Channel. These tidal currents leave along the Norwegian coast.[20] Surface and deep water currents may move in different directions. Low salinity surface coastal waters move offshore, and deeper, denser high salinity waters move inshore.[21]
The North Sea located on the continental shelf has different waves from those in deep ocean water. The wave speeds are diminished and the wave amplitudes are increased. In the North Sea there are twoamphidromic systems and a third incomplete amphidromic system.[22][23] In the North Sea the average tide difference in wave amplitude is between zero and eight metres (26 ft).[clarification needed][4]
The Kelvin tide of the Atlantic Ocean is a semidiurnal wave that travels northward. Some of the energy from this wave travels through the English Channel into the North Sea. The wave continues to travel northward in the Atlantic Ocean, and once past the northern tip of Great Britain, theKelvin wave turns east and south and once again enters the North Sea.[24]
The eastern and western coasts of the North Sea are jagged, formed byglaciers during theice ages. The coastlines along the southernmost part are covered with the remains of deposited glacial sediment.[1] The Norwegian mountains plunge into the sea creating deepfjords andarchipelagos. South of Stavanger, the coast softens, the islands become fewer.[1] The eastern Scottish coast is similar, though less severe than Norway. Fromnorth east of England, the cliffs become lower and are composed of less resistantmoraine, which erodes more easily, so that the coasts have more rounded contours.[59][60] In the Netherlands, Belgium and inEast Anglia thelittoral is low and marshy.[1] The east coast and south-east of the North Sea (Wadden Sea) have coastlines that are mainly sandy and straight owing tolongshore drift, particularly along Belgium and Denmark.[61]
TheAfsluitdijk (Closure-dike) is a major dam in the Netherlands.
The southern coastal areas were originallyflood plains and swampy land. In areas especially vulnerable to storm surges, people settled behind elevated levees and on natural areas of high ground such asspits andgeestland.[62]: [302, 303] As early as 500 BC, people were constructingartificial dwelling hills higher than the prevailing flood levels.[62]: [306, 308] It was only around the beginning of theHigh Middle Ages, in 1200 AD, that inhabitants began to connect single ring dikes into a dike line along the entire coast, thereby turning amphibious regions between the land and the sea into permanent solid ground.[62]
The modern form of the dikes supplemented by overflow and lateral diversion channels, began to appear in the 17th and 18th centuries, built in the Netherlands.[63] The North Sea Floods of 1953 and 1962 were the impetus for further raising of the dikes as well as the shortening of the coast line so as to present as little surface area as possible to the punishment of the sea and the storms.[64] Currently, 27% of the Netherlands is below sea level protected by dikes, dunes, and beach flats.[65]
Coastal management today consists of several levels.[66] The dike slope reduces the energy of the incoming sea, so that the dike itself does not receive the full impact.[66] Dikes that lie directly on the sea are especially reinforced.[66] The dikes have, over the years, been repeatedly raised, sometimes up to 9 metres (30 ft) and have been made flatter to better reduce wave erosion.[67] Where the dunes are sufficient to protect the land behind them from the sea, these dunes are planted with beach grass (Ammophila arenaria) to protect them from erosion by wind, water, and foot traffic.[68]
Storm surges threaten, in particular, the coasts of the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and Denmark and low-lying areas of eastern England particularly aroundThe Wash andFens.[61]Storm surges are caused by changes inbarometric pressure combined with strong wind createdwave action.[69]
The first recorded storm tide flood was theJulianenflut, on 17 February 1164. In its wake, theJadebusen, (a bay on the coast of Germany), began to form.A storm tide in 1228 is recorded to have killed more than 100,000 people.[70] In 1362, theSecond Marcellus Flood, also known as theGrote Manndrenke, hit the entire southern coast of the North Sea. Chronicles of the time again record more than 100,000 deaths, large parts of the coast were lost permanently to the sea, including the now legendarylost city ofRungholt.[71]In the 20th century, theNorth Sea flood of 1953 flooded several nations' coasts and cost more than 2,000 lives.[72]315 citizens of Hamburg died in theNorth Sea flood of 1962.[73]: [79, 86]
Tsunamis
Though rare, the North Sea has been the site of a number of historically documentedtsunamis. TheStoregga Slides were a series of underwater landslides, in which a piece of the Norwegian continental shelf slid into the Norwegian Sea. The immense landslips occurred between 8150 BCE and 6000 BCE, and caused a tsunami up to 20 metres (66 ft) high that swept through the North Sea, having the greatest effect on Scotland and theFaeroe Islands.[74][75]TheDover Straits earthquake of 1580 is among the first recorded earthquakes in the North Sea measuring between 5.6 and 5.9 on the Richter scale. This event caused extensive damage inCalais both through its tremors and possibly triggered atsunami, though this has never been confirmed. The theory is a vast underwater landslide in theEnglish Channel was triggered by the earthquake, which in turn caused a tsunami.[76] The tsunami triggered by the1755 Lisbon earthquake reached Holland, although the waves had lost their destructive power. The largest earthquake ever recorded in the United Kingdom was the1931 Dogger Bank earthquake, which measured 6.1 on theRichter magnitude scale and caused a small tsunami that flooded parts of the British coast.[76]
In 1995, the 25.6 m (84 ft) tallDraupner wave occurred in the North Sea, becoming the firstrogue wave to be observed using scientific instruments.[77]
Shallowepicontinental seas like the current North Sea have since long existed on the Europeancontinental shelf. Therifting that formed the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean during theJurassic andCretaceous periods, from about150 million years ago, causedtectonic uplift in the British Isles.[78] Since then, a shallow sea has almost continuously existed between the uplands of theFennoscandian Shield and the British Isles.[79] This precursor of the current North Sea has grown and shrunk with the rise and fall of theeustatic sea level during geologic time. Sometimes it was connected with other shallow seas, such as the sea above theParis Basin to the south-west, theParatethys Sea to the south-east, or theTethys Ocean to the south.[80]
During the Late Cretaceous, about85 million years ago, all of modern mainland Europe except for Scandinavia was a scattering of islands.[81] By the EarlyOligocene,34 to 28 million years ago, the emergence of Western and Central Europe had almost completely separated the North Sea from the Tethys Ocean, which gradually shrank to become the Mediterranean as Southern Europe and South West Asia became dry land.[82] The North Sea was cut off from the English Channel by a narrowland bridge until that was breached by at least two catastrophic floods between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago.[83][84] Since the start of theQuaternary period about2.6 million years ago, the eustatic sea level has fallen during each glacial period and then risen again. Every time theice sheet reached its greatest extent, the North Sea became almost completely dry, the dry landmass being known asDoggerland, whose northern regions were themselves known to have been glaciated.[85] The present-day coastline formed after theLast Glacial Maximum when the sea began to flood the European continental shelf.[86]
In 2006 a bone fragment was found while drilling for oil in the North Sea. Analysis indicated that it was aPlateosaurus from 199 to 216 million years ago. This was the deepest dinosaur fossil ever found and the first find for Norway.[87]
Copepods and otherzooplankton are plentiful in the North Sea. These tiny organisms are crucial elements of thefood chain supporting many species of fish.[88] Over 230 species offish live in the North Sea.Cod,haddock,whiting,saithe,plaice,sole,mackerel,herring,pouting,sprat, andsandeel are all very common and are fished commercially.[88][89] Due to the various depths of the North Sea trenches and differences in salinity, temperature, and water movement, some fish such as blue-mouth redfish andrabbitfish reside only in small areas of the North Sea.[90]
Plant species in the North Sea include species ofwrack, among thembladder wrack,knotted wrack, and serrated wrack.Algae, macroalgal, andkelp, such as oarweed and laminaria hyperboria, and species ofmaerl are found as well.[89]Eelgrass, formerly common in the entirety of the Wadden Sea, was nearly wiped out in the 20th century by a disease.[93] Similarly,sea grass used to coat huge tracts of ocean floor, but have been damaged by trawling and dredging have diminished its habitat and prevented its return.[94] InvasiveJapanese seaweed has spread along the shores of the sea, clogging harbours and inlets and has become a nuisance.[95]
Biodiversity and conservation
Due to the heavy human populations and high level of industrialization along its shores, the wildlife of the North Sea has suffered from pollution, overhunting, and overfishing.Flamingos andpelicans were once found along the southern shores of the North Sea, but became extinct over the second millennium.[96] Walruses frequented the Orkney Islands through the mid-16th century, as both Sable Island and Orkney Islands lay within their normal range.[97]Grey whales also resided in the North Sea but were driven to extinction in the Atlantic in the 17th century[98] Other species have dramatically declined in population, though they are still found.North Atlantic right whales,sturgeon,shad,rays,skates,salmon, and other species were common in the North Sea until the 20th century, when numbers declined due tooverfishing.[99][100]
The OSPAR commission manages theOSPAR convention to counteract the harmful effects of human activity on wildlife in the North Sea, preserveendangered species, and provide environmental protection.[102] All North Sea border states are signatories of theMARPOL 73/78 Accords, which preserve the marine environment by preventing pollution from ships.[103] Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands also have a trilateral agreement for the protection of theWadden Sea, ormudflats, which run along the coasts of the three countries on the southern edge of the North Sea.[104]
Names
The North Sea has hadvarious names throughout history. One of the earliest recorded names wasSeptentrionalis Oceanus, or "Northern Ocean", which was cited byPliny.[105] He also noted that theCimbri called itMorimarusa – "Dead Sea".[106] The name "North Sea" probably came into English, however, via the DutchNoordzee, who named it thus either in contrast with theZuiderzee ("South Sea"), located south ofFrisia, or because the sea is generally to the north of the Netherlands. Before the adoption of "North Sea", the names used in English were "German Sea" or "German Ocean", referred to as theLatin namesMare Germanicum andOceanus Germanicus,[107] and these persisted in use until the First World War.[108] Other common names in use for long periods were theLatin termsMare Frisicum, as well as the English equivalent, "Frisian Sea".[109][110] The modern names of the sea in the other local languages are:Danish:Vesterhavet,lit. 'West Sea'[ˈvestɐˌhɛˀvð̩] orNordsøen[ˈnoɐ̯ˌsøˀn̩],Dutch:Noordzee,Dutch Low Saxon:Noordzee,French:Mer du Nord,West Frisian:Noardsee,German:Nordsee,Low German:Noordsee,North Frisian:Weestsiie,lit. 'West Sea',Swedish:Nordsjön,Bokmål:Nordsjøen[ˈnûːrˌʂøːn],Nynorsk:Nordsjøen,Scots:North Sea andScottish Gaelic:An Cuan a Tuath.
A 1482 recreation of a map from Ptolemy'sGeography showing the "Oceanus Germanicus"
The North Sea has provided waterway access for commerce and conquest. Many areas have access to the North Sea because of its long coastline and the European rivers that empty it.[1] There is little documentary evidence concerning the North Sea before theRoman conquest of Britain in 43 CE, however, archaeological evidence reveals the diffusion of cultures and technologies from across or along the North Sea to Great Britain and Scandinavia and reliance by some prehistoric cultures on fishing, whaling, and seaborne trade on the North Sea. The Romans established organised ports in Britain, which increased shipping and began sustained trade[111] and many Scandinavian tribes participated in raids and wars against the Romans and Roman coinage and manufacturing were important trade goods. When the Romansabandoned Britain in 410, the GermanicAngles,Frisians,Saxons, andJutes began the next great migration across the North Sea during theMigration Period. They made successive invasions of the island from what is now the Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany.[112]
TheViking Age began in 793 with the attack onLindisfarne; for the next quarter-millennium, the Vikings ruled the North Sea. In their superiorlongships, they raided, traded, and established colonies and outposts along the coasts of the sea. From the Middle Ages through the 15th century, thenorthern European coastal ports exported domestic goods, dyes, linen, salt, metal goods and wine. The Scandinavian and Baltic areas shipped grain, fish, naval necessities, and timber. In turn, the North Sea countries imported high-grade cloths, spices, and fruits from the Mediterranean region.[113] Commerce during this era was mainly conducted by maritime trade due to underdeveloped roadways.[113]
In the 13th century theHanseatic League, though centred on theBaltic Sea, started to control most of the trade through important members and outposts on the North Sea.[114] The League lost its dominance in the 16th century, as neighbouring states took control of formerHanseatic cities and outposts. Their internal conflict prevented effective cooperation and defence.[115] As the League lost control of its maritime cities, newtrade routes emerged that provided Europe with Asian, American, and African goods.[116][117]
The 17th centuryDutch Golden Age saw Dutch maritime power at its zenith.[118][119] Important overseas colonies, a vast merchant marine, a large fishing fleet,[113] powerful navy, and sophisticated financial markets made the Dutch the ascendant power in the North Sea, to be challenged by an ambitious England. This rivalry led to the first threeAnglo-Dutch Wars between 1652 and 1673, which ended with Dutch victories.[119] After theGlorious Revolution in 1688, the Dutch princeWilliam ascended to the English throne. With unified leadership, commercial, military, and political power began to shift from Amsterdam to London.[120]The British did not face a challenge to their dominance of the North Sea until the 20th century.[121]
Tensions in the North Sea were again heightened in 1904 by theDogger Bank incident. During theRusso-Japanese War, several ships of the Russian Baltic Fleet, which was on its way to the Far East, mistook British fishing boats for Japanese ships and fired on them, and then upon each other, near the Dogger Bank, nearly causing Britain to enter the war on the side of Japan.
TheSecond World War also saw action in the North Sea, though it was restricted more to aircraft reconnaissance and action by fighter/bomber aircraft, submarines and smaller vessels such asminesweepers andtorpedo boats.[127][128]
After the war, hundreds of thousands of tons of chemical weapons were disposed of by being dumped in the North Sea.[129]
After the war, the North Sea lost much of its military significance because it is bordered only byNATO member-states. However, it gained significant economic importance in the 1960s as the states around the North Sea began full-scale exploitation of itsoil and gas resources.[130] The North Sea continues to be an active trade route.[131]
Countries that border the North Sea all claim the 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) ofterritorial waters, within which they have exclusive fishing rights.[132] TheCommon Fisheries Policy of theEuropean Union (EU) exists to coordinate fishing rights and assist with disputes between EU states and the EU border state of Norway.[133]
After the discovery of mineral resources in the North Sea during the early 1960s, theConvention on the Continental Shelf established country rights largely divided along the median line. The median line is defined as the line "every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured".[134]The ocean floor border between Germany, the Netherlands, and Denmark was only reapportioned in 1969 after protracted negotiations and a judgment of theInternational Court of Justice.[132][135]
As early as 1859, oil was discovered in onshore areas around the North Sea andnatural gas as early as 1910.[81] Onshore resources, for example theK12-B field in the Netherlands continue to be exploited today.
The exploitation of the North Seaoil reserves began just before the1973 oil crisis, and the climb of international oil prices made the large investments needed for extraction much more attractive.[139]The start in 1973 of the oil reserves by the UK allowed them to stop the declining position in international trade in 1974, and a huge increase after the discovery and exploitation of the huge oil field by Phillips group in 1977 as theBrae field.
Although the production costs are relatively high, the quality of the oil, the political stability of the region, and the proximity of important markets inwestern Europe have made the North Sea an important oil-producing region.[137] The largest single humanitarian catastrophe in the North Seaoil industry was the destruction of the offshoreoil platformPiper Alpha in 1988 in which 167 people lost their lives.[140]
The price ofBrent Crude, one of the first types of oil extracted from the North Sea is used today as a standard price for comparison forcrude oil from the rest of the world.[142] The North Sea contains western Europe's largest oil and natural gas reserves and is one of the world's key non-OPEC producing regions.[143]
In the UK sector of the North Sea, the oil industry invested £14.4 billion in 2013 and was on track to spend £13 billion in 2014. Industry bodyOil & Gas UK put the decline down to rising costs, lower production, high tax rates, and less exploration.[144]
In January 2018, The North Sea region contained 184 offshore rigs, which made it the region with the highest number of offshore rigs in the world at the time.[145]
The British North Sea's oil and gas production, peaking in 2000, had declined by 2024, while offshore wind projects like Dogger Bank grew to support renewable energy goals, with windfall taxes funding the transition.[146]
The North Sea is Europe's main fishery accounting for over 5% of international commercial fish caught.[1] Fishing in the North Sea is concentrated in the southern part of the coastal waters. The main method of fishing istrawling.[147]In 1995, the total volume of fish and shellfish caught in the North Sea was approximately 3.5 million tonnes.[148] Besides saleable fish, it is estimated that one million tonnes of unmarketableby-catch is caught and discarded to die each year.[149]
In recent decades,overfishing has left many fisheries unproductive, disturbing marinefood chain dynamics and costing jobs in thefishing industry.[150] Herring, cod and plaice fisheries may soon face the same plight as mackerel fishing, which ceased in the 1970s due to overfishing.[151]The objective of the European UnionCommon Fisheries Policy is to minimize the environmental impact associated with resource use by reducing fish discards, increasing the productivity of fisheries, stabilising markets of fisheries and fish processing, and supplying fish at reasonable prices for the consumer.[152]
Whaling
Whaling was an important economic activity from the 9th until the 13th century for Flemish whalers.[153] The medieval Flemish, Basque and Norwegian whalers who were replaced in the 16th century by Dutch, English, Danes, and Germans, took massive numbers of whales and dolphins and nearly depleted the right whales. This activity likely led to the extinction of the Atlantic population of the once commongrey whale.[154] By 1902 the whaling had ended.[153] After being absent for 300 years a single grey whale returned in 2010,[155] it probably was the first of many more to find its way through the now ice-freeNorthwest Passage.
In addition to oil, gas, and fish, the states along the North Sea also take millions of cubic metres per year ofsand andgravel from the ocean floor. These are used forbeach nourishment,land reclamationand construction.[156]Rolled pieces ofamber may be picked up on the east coast of England.[157]
Due to the strongprevailing winds, and shallow water, countries on the North Sea, particularly Germany and Denmark, have used the shore forwind power since the 1990s.[158] The North Sea is the home of one of the first large-scaleoffshore wind farms in the world,Horns Rev 1, completed in 2002. Since then many otherwind farms have been commissioned in the North Sea (and elsewhere). As of 2013, the 630 megawatt (MW)London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, with the 504 (MW)Greater Gabbard wind farm the second largest, followed by the 367 MWWalney Wind Farm. All are off the coast of the UK. These projects will be dwarfed by subsequent wind farms that are in the pipeline, includingDogger Bank at 4,800 MW, Norfolk Bank (7,200 MW), and Irish Sea (4,200 MW). At the end of June 2013 total European combined offshore wind energy capacity was 6,040 MW. The UK installed 513.5 MW of offshore wind power in the first half-year of 2013.[159] The development of the offshore wind industry in UK-controlled areas of the North Sea is traced to three phases: coastal, off-coastal and deep offshore in the period 2004 – 2021.[160]
The expansion of offshore wind farms has met with some resistance. Concerns have included shipping collisions[161] andenvironmental effects on ocean ecology and wildlife such as fish and migratory birds,[162] however, these concerns were found to be negligible in a long-term study in Denmark released in 2006 and again in a UK government study in 2009.[163][164]There are also concerns about reliability,[165] and the rising costs of constructing and maintaining offshore wind farms.[166] Despite these, development of North Sea wind power is continuing, with plans for additional wind farms off the coasts of Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK.[167] There have also been proposals for atransnational power grid in the North Sea[168][169] to connectnew offshore wind farms.[170]
Energy production fromtidal power is still in a pre-commercial stage. TheEuropean Marine Energy Centre has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney mainland[171] and a tidal power testing station on the nearby island ofEday.[172] Since 2003, a prototypeWave Dragon energy converter has been in operation at Nissum Bredning fjord of northern Denmark.[173]
The beaches and coastal waters of the North Sea are destinations for tourists. The English, Belgian, Dutch, German and Danish coasts[174][175] are developed for tourism. The North Sea coast of the United Kingdom has tourist destinations with beach resorts andlinks golf courses; the coastal town ofSt. Andrews in Scotland is renowned as the home ofgolf, and is a popular location among golfing pilgrims.[176]
The climatic conditions on the North Sea coast have been claimed to be healthy. As early as the 19th century, travellers visited the North Sea coast for curative and restorative vacations. The sea air, temperature, wind, water, and sunshine are counted among the beneficial conditions that are said to activate the body's defences, improve circulation, strengthen the immune system, and have healing effects on the skin and the respiratory system.[180]
Fishing boats, service boats for offshore industries, sport and pleasure craft, and merchant ships to and fromNorth Sea ports andBaltic ports must share routes on the North Sea. The Dover Strait alone sees more than 400 commercial vessels a day.[183] Because of this volume, navigation in the North Sea can be difficult in high traffic zones, so ports have established elaboratevessel traffic services to monitor and direct ships into and out of port.[184]
The North Sea coasts are home to numerous canals and canal systems to facilitate traffic between and among rivers, artificial harbours, and the sea. TheKiel Canal, connecting the North Sea with the Baltic Sea, is the most heavily used artificial seaway in the world reporting an average of 89 ships per day not including sporting boats and other small watercraft in 2009.[185] It saves an average of 250 nautical miles (460 km; 290 mi), instead of the voyage around theJutland peninsula.[186] TheNorth Sea Canal connectsAmsterdam with the North Sea.
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