"Democratic People's Republic of Korea" redirects here. Not to be confused with theRepublic of Korea (South Korea) or the provisionalPeople's Republic of Korea (1945–1946).
North Korea,[a] officially theDemocratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK),[b] is a country inEast Asia. It constitutes the northern half of theKorean Peninsula and bordersChina andRussia to the north at theYalu (Amnok) andTumen rivers, andSouth Korea to the south at theKorean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).[c] The country's western border is formed by theYellow Sea, while its eastern border is defined by theSea of Japan. North Korea, like South Korea, claims to be the sole legitimate government of the Korean Peninsula andadjacent islands.Pyongyang is the capital and largest city.
After the division of the country into North and South Korea, the two sides used different terms to refer to Korea:Chosun orJoseon (조선) in North Korea, andHanguk (한국) in South Korea. In 1948, North Korea adoptedDemocratic People's Republic of Korea (Korean:조선민주주의인민공화국,Chosŏn Minjujuŭi Inmin Konghwaguk;listenⓘ) as its official name. Within North Korea, this is frequently shortened to just "the Republic" (공화국).[15]
In the wider world, because its government controls the northern part of the Korean Peninsula, it is commonly calledNorth Korea to distinguish it from South Korea, which is officially called theRepublic of Korea in English. Both governments consider themselves to be the legitimate government of the whole of Korea;[16][17] for this reason, the people of North Korea consider themselves Koreans, not North Koreans, with foreign visitors being discouraged from using the latter term.[18]
TheFour Commanderies of Han, established in the former territory ofGojoseon after the fall of Wiman Joseon.[19] The location of the commanderies has become a controversial topic in Korea in recent years.[20] However, the location of the commanderies is not controversial outside of Korea.[note 1]
According toKorean mythology in 2333 BC, theGojoseon Kingdom was established by the god-kingDangun. Following the end of the Three Kingdoms of Korea into Silla and Balhae in the late 7th century, Korea was subsequently ruled by the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) and theJoseon dynasty (1392–1897). In 1897,King Gojong proclaimed theKorean Empire, which wasannexed by theEmpire of Japan in 1910.[21]
Ancient Korea
The oldest surviving metal movable type book, theJikji, was printed in 1377, andGoryeo created the world's first metal-based movable type in 1234[22]
According to Korea'sfounding mythology, the history of Korea begins with the founding of Joseon (also known as "Gojoseon", or "Old Joseon", to differentiate it from the 14th century dynasty) in 2333 BC by the legendaryDangun.[25][26] Gojoseon was noted in Chinese records in the early 7th century.[27] Gojoseon expanded until it controlled the northern Korean Peninsula and parts ofManchuria.Gija Joseon was purportedly founded in the 12th century BC, but its existence and role have been controversial in the modern era.[26][28] In 108 BC, theHan dynastydefeatedWiman Joseon and installedfour commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades. AsLelang Commandery was destroyed and rebuilt around this time, the place gradually moved toward Liaodong.[clarification needed] Thus, its force was diminished and only served as a trade center until it was conquered by Goguryeo in 313.[29][30][31]
Beginning around 300 BC, theJaponic-speakingYayoi people from the Korean Peninsula entered the Japanese islands and displaced or intermingled with the originalJōmon inhabitants.[32] The linguistic homeland of Proto-Koreans is located somewhere in southernSiberia/Manchuria, such as theLiao River area or theAmur River area. Proto-Koreans arrived in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC, replacing and assimilating Japonic-speakers and likely causing theYayoi migration.[33]
Goguryeo, the largest and most powerful among them, was a highly militaristic state[34] and competed with various Chinese dynasties during its 700 years of history. Goguryeo experienced a golden age underGwanggaeto the Great and his sonJangsu,[35][36][37][38] who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their respective reigns, achieving a brief unification of the Three Kingdoms and becoming the most dominant power on the Korean Peninsula.[39][40] In addition to contesting control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had manymilitary conflicts with variousChinese dynasties, most notably theGoguryeo–Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force said to number over a million men.[41]
Baekje was a maritime power,[42] sometimes called the "Phoenicia of East Asia".[43] Its maritime ability was instrumental in the dissemination ofBuddhism throughout East Asia and spreading continental culture to Japan.[44][45] Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time ofGeunchogo,[46] but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined.[citation needed] Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but used opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventuallyTang China, to its advantage.[47][48]
In 676, the unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla led to theNorthern and Southern States period, in whichBalhae controlled the northern parts of Goguryeo, and much of the Korean Peninsula was controlled byLater Silla. Relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful during this time. Balhae was founded by aGoguryeo general and formed as a successor state to Goguryeo. During its height, Balhae controlled most of Manchuria and parts of the Russian Far East and was called the "Prosperous Country in the East".[49]
Late Silla was a wealthy country,[50] and its metropolitan capital ofGyeongju[51] grew to become the fourth largest city in the world.[52][53][54][55] It experienced a golden age of art and culture,[56][57][58][59] exemplified by monuments such asHwangnyongsa,Seokguram, and theEmille Bell. It also carried on the maritime legacy and prowess of Baekje, and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea, and Japan, most notably during the time ofChang Pogo. In addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on theShandong Peninsula and the mouth of theYangtze River.[60][61][62][63] However, Silla was later weakened due to internal strife and the revival of successor statesBaekje andGoguryeo, which culminated into theLater Three Kingdoms period in the late 9th century.
In 936, the Later Three Kingdoms were united byWang Geon, who establishedGoryeo as the successor state of Goguryeo.[71][72][73][74] Balhae had fallen to theKhitan Empire in 926, and a decade later thelast crown prince of Balhae fled south to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included in the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo.[75] Like Silla, Goryeo was a highly cultural state, and invented the metal movable typeprinting press.[22] After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time,[76][77] in theGoryeo–Khitan War, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which theTripitaka Koreana was completed and significant developments in printing and publishing occurred. This promoted education and the dispersion of knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science. By 1100, there were 12 universities that produced notable scholars.[78][79]
However, theMongol invasions in the 13th century greatly weakened the kingdom. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after three decades of fighting, the Korean court sent itscrown prince to theYuan capital to swear allegiance toKublai Khan, who accepted and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince.[80] Henceforth, Goryeo continued to rule Korea, though as a tributary ally to the Mongols for the next 86 years. During this period, the two nations became intertwined as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses,[80] and thelast empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess. In the mid-14th century, Goryeo drove out the Mongols to regain its northern territories, briefly conqueredLiaoyang, and defeated invasions by theRed Turbans. However, in 1392, GeneralYi Seong-gye, who had been ordered to attack China, turned his army around and staged a coup.
Yi Seong-gye declared the new name of Korea as "Joseon" in reference to Gojoseon, and moved the capital to Hanseong (one of the old names ofSeoul).[81] The first 200 years of theJoseon dynasty were marked by peace and saw great advancements in science[82][83] and education,[84] as well as the creation ofHangul bySejong the Great to promote literacy among the common people.[85] The prevailing ideology of the time wasNeo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by theseonbi class: nobles who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity. Between 1592 and 1598, Japan underToyotomi Hideyoshi launchedinvasions of Korea, but the advance was halted by Korean forces (most notably theJoseon Navy led by AdmiralYi Sun-sin and his renowned "turtle ship") with assistance fromrighteous army militias formed by Korean civilians, andMing dynasty Chinese troops.[86] Through a series of successful battles of attrition, the Japanese forces were eventually forced to withdraw, and relations between all parties became normalized. However, theManchus took advantage of Joseon's war-weakened state andinvaded in 1627 and 1637 and thenwent on to conquer the destabilized Ming dynasty. After normalizing relations with the newQing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. KingsYeongjo andJeongjo particularly led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century.[87][88]
In the 19th century, Joseon began experiencing economic difficulties and widespread uprisings, including theDonghak Peasant Revolution. The royal in-law families had gained control of the government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state.[citation needed] In addition, the strict isolationism of the Joseon government that earned it "thehermit kingdom" became increasing ineffective due to increasing encroachment from powers such as Japan, Russia, and the United States. This is exemplified by theJoseon–United States Treaty of 1882, in which it was compelled to open its borders.
During the Japanese colonial period, most Koreans were peasants engaged insubsistence farming.[91] In the 1930s, Japan developed mines, hydro-electric dams, steel mills, and manufacturing plants in northern Korea and neighboringManchuria.[92] The Korean industrial working class expanded rapidly, and many Koreans went to work in Manchuria.[93] As a result, 65% of Korea's heavy industry was located in the north, but, due to the rugged terrain, only 37% of its agriculture.[94]
Due to its rule by Japan, northern Korea had little exposure to modern, Western ideas.[95] One partial exception was the penetration of religion. Since the arrival of missionaries in the late nineteenth century, the northwest of Korea, and Pyongyang in particular, had been a stronghold of Christianity.[96] As a result, Pyongyang was called the "Jerusalem of the East".[97] A Korean guerrilla movement emerged in the mountainous interior and in Manchuria, harassing the Japanese imperial authorities. One of the most prominent guerrilla leaders was the Communist Kim Il Sung.[98]
Towards the end ofWorld War II, the U.S. proposed dividing the Korean peninsula into two occupation zones: aU.S. zone and aSoviet zone.Dean Rusk andCharles H. Bonesteel III suggested the38th parallel as the dividing line, as it placed Seoul under U.S. control. To the Americans' surprise, the Soviets accepted their proposal and agreed to divide Korea at that line.[99]
Soviet forces withdrew from the North in 1948, and most American forces withdrew from the South in 1949. Ambassador Shtykov suspected Rhee was planning to invade the North and was sympathetic to Kim's goal of Korean unification under socialism. The two successfully lobbied Soviet leaderJoseph Stalin to support a quick war against the South, which culminated in the outbreak of the Korean War.[102][103][104][105]
Territory often changed hands early in the war, until the front stabilized.
North Korean, Chinese, and Soviet forces
South Korean, U.S., Commonwealth, and United Nations forces
Themilitary of North Korea invaded the South on 25 June 1950, and swiftly overran most of the country. TheUnited Nations Command (UNC) was subsequently established following theUN Security Council's recognition of North Korean aggression against South Korea. The motion passed because theSoviet Union, a close ally of North Korea and a member of the UN Security Council, was boycotting the UN over its recognition of theRepublic of China rather than the People's Republic of China.[106] The UNC, led by the United States, intervened to defend the South, and rapidly advanced into North Korea. As they neared the border with China,Chinese forces intervened on behalf of North Korea, shifting the balance of the war again. Fighting ended on 27 July 1953, withan armistice that approximately restored the original boundaries between North and South Korea, but no peace treaty was signed.[107] Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean War, with a higher proportional civilian death toll thanWorld War II or theVietnam War.[108][109][110][111][112] In both per capita and absolute terms, North Korea was the country most devastated by the war, which resulted in the death of an estimated 12–15% of the North Korean population (c. 10 million), "a figure close to or surpassing the proportion ofSoviet citizens killed in World War II", according toCharles K. Armstrong.[113] As a result of the war, almost every substantial building in North Korea was destroyed.[114][115] Some have referred to the conflict as a civil war, with other factors involved.[116]
A heavily guarded demilitarized zone (DMZ) still divides the peninsula, and an anti-communist and anti-North Korea sentiment remains in South Korea. Since the war, the United States has maintained a strongmilitary presence in the South which is depicted by the North Korean government as an imperialist occupation force.[117] It claims that the Korean War was caused by the United States and South Korea.[118]
The post-war 1950s and 1960s saw an ideological shift in North Korea, as Kim Il Sung sought to consolidate his power. Kim Il Sung was highly critical of Soviet premierNikita Khrushchev and hisde-Stalinization policies and critiqued Khrushchev as revisionist.[119] During the 1956August Faction Incident, Kim Il Sung successfully resisted efforts by the Soviet Union and China to depose him in favor ofSoviet Koreans or the pro-ChineseYan'an faction.[120][121] Some scholars believe that the 1956 August incident was an example of North Korea demonstrating political independence.[120][121][122] However, most scholars consider the final withdrawal of Chinese troops from North Korea in October 1958 to be the latest date when North Korea became effectively independent. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, North Korea sought to distinguish itself internationally by becoming a leader of theNon-Aligned Movement and promoting the ideology ofJuche.[123] In United States policymaking, North Korea was considered among theCaptive Nations.[124] Despite its efforts to break out of the Soviet and Chinese spheres of influence, North Korea remained closely aligned with both countries throughout the Cold War.[125]
Industry was the favored sector in North Korea. Industrial production returned to pre-war levels by 1957. In 1959, relations with Japan had improved somewhat, and North Korea began allowing the repatriation of Japanese citizens in the country. The same year, North Korea revalued theNorth Korean won, which held greater value than its South Korean counterpart. Until the 1960s, economic growth was higher than in South Korea, and North Korean GDP per capita was equal to that of its southern neighbor as late as 1976.[126] However, by the 1980s, the economy had begun to stagnate; it started its long decline in 1987 and almost completely collapsed after thedissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, when all Soviet aid was suddenly halted.[127]
An internal CIA study acknowledged various achievements of the North Korean government post-war: compassionate care for war orphans and children in general, a radical improvement in the status of women, free housing, free healthcare, and health statistics particularly in life expectancy and infant mortality that were comparable to even the most advanced nations up until theNorth Korean famine.[128] Life expectancy in the North was 72 before the famine which was only marginally lower than in the South.[129] The country once boasted a comparatively developed healthcare system; pre-famine North Korea had a network of nearly 45,000 family practitioners with some 800 hospitals and 1,000 clinics.[130]
The relative peace between the North and South following the armistice was interrupted by border skirmishes, celebrity abductions, and assassination attempts. The North failed in several assassination attempts on South Korean leaders, such asin 1968, 1974, and theRangoon bombing in 1983; tunnels were found under the DMZ and tensions flared over theaxe murder incident atPanmunjom in 1976.[131] For almost two decades after the war, the two states did not seek to negotiate with one another. In 1971, secret, high-level contacts began to be conducted culminating in the 1972July 4 South–North Joint Statement that established principles of working toward peaceful reunification. The talks ultimately failed because in 1973, South Korea declared its preference that the two Koreas should seek separate memberships in international organizations.[132]
Leadership of Kim Jong Il
The Soviet Union wasdissolved on 26 December 1991, ending its aid and support to North Korea. In 1992, as Kim Il Sung's health began deteriorating, his son Kim Jong Il slowly began taking over various state tasks. Kim Il Sungdied of aheart attack in 1994; Kim Jong Il declared a three-year period of national mourning, afterward officially announcing his position as the new leader.[133]
Flooding in the mid-1990s exacerbated the economic crisis, severely damaging crops and infrastructure and leading towidespread famine that the government proved incapable of curtailing, resulting in the deaths of between 240,000 and 420,000 people and leading to the flight of many North Koreans into China, South Korea and neighboring countries. In China, these illegal North Korea child immigrants are called theKotjebi. In 1996, the government accepted UN food aid.[134]
North Korea promised to halt its development of nuclear weapons under theAgreed Framework, signed in 1994. South Korea began to engage with the North as part of itsSunshine Policy.[135][136] Kim Jong Il instituted a policy calledSongun, or "military first".[137] The international environment changed onceGeorge W. Bush became U.S. President in 2001, whose administration rejected South Korea's Sunshine Policy and the Agreed Framework. Bush included North Korea in hisaxis of evil in his2002 State of the Union Address. The U.S. government accordingly treated North Korea as arogue state, while North Korea redoubled its efforts to acquire nuclear weapons.[138][139][140] On 9 October 2006, North Korea announced it had conductedits first nuclear weapons test.[141][142]
Kim Jong Un with Russian Defence MinisterSergei Shoigu during the ceremonies marking the 70th anniversary of the end of theKorean War in Pyongyang, 27 July 2023
On 17 December 2011, Kim Jong Ildied from a heart attack. His youngest sonKim Jong Un was announced as his successor.[147] In the face of international condemnation, North Korea continued to develop its nuclear arsenal, possibly including ahydrogen bomb and a missile capable of reaching the United States.[148]
Throughout 2017, followingDonald Trump's ascension to the US presidency, relations between the United States and North Korea worsened, and there was a period ofheightened tension between the two countries.[149][150] The tensions substantially decreased in 2018, and adétente developed.[151] Aseries of summits took place between North Korea, South Korea and the United States, though the talks ultimately broke down.[152]
North Korea occupies the northern portion of the Korean Peninsula, lying between latitudes37° and43°N, and longitudes124° and131°E. It covers an area of 120,540 square kilometers (46,541 sq mi).[2] To its west are theYellow Sea andKorea Bay, and to its east lies Japan across theSea of Japan.[156]
Early European visitors to Korea remarked that the country resembled "a sea in a heavy gale" because of the many successivemountain ranges that crisscross the peninsula.[157] Some 80 percent of North Korea is composed of mountains and uplands, separated by deep and narrow valleys. All of the Korean Peninsula's mountains with elevations of 2,000 meters (6,600 ft) or more are located in North Korea. The highest point in North Korea isPaektu Mountain, a volcanic mountain with an elevation of 2,744 meters (9,003 ft) above sea level.[157] Considered a sacred place by North Koreans, Mount Paektu holds significance in Korean culture and has been incorporated in the elaborate folklore and personality cult around the Kim family.[158] For example, the song, "We Will Go To Mount Paektu" sings in praise of Kim Jong Un and describes a symbolic trek to the mountain. Other prominent ranges are theHamgyong Range in the extreme northeast and theRangrim Mountains, which are located in the north-central part of North Korea.Mount Kumgang in theTaebaek Range, which extends into South Korea, is famous for its scenic beauty.[157]
North Korea experiences ahumid continental climate within theKöppen climate classification scheme. Winters bring clear weather interspersed with snow storms as a result of northern and northwestern winds that blow fromSiberia.[163] Summer tends to be by far the hottest, most humid, and rainiest time of year because of the southern and southeasternmonsoon winds that carry moist air from thePacific Ocean. Approximately 60 percent of all precipitation occurs from June to September.[163] Spring and autumn are transitional seasons between summer and winter. The daily average high and low temperatures for Pyongyang are −3 and −13 °C (27 and 9 °F) in January and 29 and 20 °C (84 and 68 °F) in August.[163]
TheWorkers' Party of Korea (WPK) is acommunist party with an estimated 6.5 million members.[171] North Korea has established the WPK'sleadership of state and society in its constitution by stating that "The Democratic People's Republic of Korea shall conduct all activities under the leadership of the Workers' Party of Korea."[172] This means that all state organs of North Korea work under the leadership of the WPK.[172] Per the party's organisational principle ofdemocratic centralism, all party members in state organs have to implement the decisions of theWPK Central Committee. Moreover, all state organs are composed of a majority of party members, meaning that these members work according to the WPK's design.[173] The party also establishes party groups within state organs, which the WPK Central Committee supervises through itsOrganisation and Guidance Department.[174]
The highest organ of the WPK is theparty congress, which meets at least every fifth year. It is empowered to elect theparty leader, meaning the office ofgeneral secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea, and the members and candidates of the WPK Central Committee. At its first session after a party congress, the WPK Central Committee elects itscentral leading organs: thePresidium, thePolitburo, theSecretariat, theCentral Military Commission (CMC) and theCentral Auditing Commission. The general secretary leads the work of the Presidium, the Politburo, and the Secretariat, and concurrently serves as the CMC chairman.[175] These organs are delegated specific powers of the Central Committee when it's not in session.[176] The Presidium is the party's highest decision-making organ when the Politburo, the Central Committee, the Conference of Representatives, and the Congress are not in session. It was established at the 6th Congress in 1980.[177]
The unified powers of the Supreme People's Assembly
Formally speaking, the second-highest state organ in North Korea is the SAC president, which in practice is the most powerful. The officeholder is elected by a session of the SPA, and is by right of office thesupreme leader and thecommander-in-chief of North Korea.[182] Under the constitution, the SAC president is authorised to provide overall guidance for state affairs and to oversee the SAC's work. The officeholder may appoint and dismiss any state official, ratify or abrogate major treaties, issue special pardons, and declare astate of emergency. In wartime, the president organises and leads a National Defence Committee. A 2019 constitutional amendment conferred authority to promulgate laws and ordinances of the SPA, as well as major decrees and decisions of the SAC, and to appoint or recall diplomatic representatives resident abroad. The president also holds the power to issue orders binding on the state as a whole. Kim Jong Un is the incumbent SAC president, having held this title since 2016. Upon his re-election in 2019 at the 1st Session of the14th Supreme People's Assembly, Kim Jong-un was elected as "the supreme representative of all the Korean people and supreme leader of the country".[183] Next in line is the SAC itself. The SAC is a collective decision-making organ headed by the SAC president. It is designated as the “supreme policy-oriented leadership organ of State power". It is responsible for executing the decisions of the SAC president and for discussing and adopting state policies more generally.[178]
The fourth-ranking state organ is thepermanent organ of the SPA, the Standing Committee. In between convocations of the SPA, most of its powers are transferred to the Standing Committee.[184] In between two SPA sessions, the Standing Committee periodically adopts new bills, which gain force once approved by the SPA, which they always are. There exists a division of labour between the two organs: the SPA may adopt or amend the constitution with the support of more than two-thirds of its representatives, whereas the Standing Committee is empowered to interpret the constitution, laws, and regulations. Constitutional enforcement is the responsibility of the Standing Committee, and its empowered to take appropriate measures, including rescinding decisions, directives, and regulations of state organs that conflict with the constitution or with acts of the SPA, the Standing Committee itself, the SAC, and acts issued by the SAC president.[185]Choe Ryong-hae has headed the Standing Committee aschairman since 2019, and is the third-ranking official in North Korea.[186]
North Korea'ssupreme executive and administrative organ of state power is the Cabinet of North Korea, and is the fifth-ranked organ. The cabinet is constitutionally designated as the government of North Korea, and is empowered to administer the national economy and execute the decisions of the SPA, the Standing Committee, the SAC and the SAC president.[187] The head of the cabinet is thepremier, who is elected by the SPA. Since 29 December 2024,Pak Thae-song has headed the cabinet,[188] and is the second-ranking official in North Korea.[186] The premier's powers extends over two vice premiers, 30ministers, two cabinet commission chairmen, the cabinet chief secretary, the president of theCentral Bank, the director of theCentral Bureau of Statistics and the president of theAcademy of Sciences.[189]
The Cabinet is, through theMinistry of Social Security and theMinistry of State Security, responsible forlaw enforcement in North Korea. The social security ministry is one of the most powerful state institutions in North Korea and oversees the national police force, investigates criminal cases and manages non-political correctional facilities.[190] It handles other aspects of domestic security like civil registration, traffic control, fire departments and railroad security.[191] The state security ministry was separated from the social security ministry in 1973 to conduct domestic and foreign intelligence, counterintelligence and manage the political prison system.[192] This security apparatus is extensive, exerting strict control over residence, travel, employment, clothing, food, family life[193] and employmass surveillance.[194]
TheSupreme Court is the state'ssupreme judicial organ, and itspresident is elected by the SPA. Judicial procedures are handled by the Supreme Court, which also acts as the highestcourt of appeal. As with other communist states, the court is viewed as a political organ responsible for working within the bounds set by the SPA and the WPK.[195] Therefore, courts carry out legal procedures related to not only criminal and civil matters, but also political cases as well.[196] Thelegal system created by the SPA, and overseen by the Supreme Court, is acivil law system based on thePrussian model and influenced by Japanese traditions and communist legal theory.[197]
Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism is the official ideology of North Korea and the WPK, and is the cornerstone of party works and government operations.[199]Juche, part of the larger Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism along withSongun under Kim Jong Un,[200] is viewed by the official North Korean line as an embodiment of Kim Il Sung's wisdom, an expression of his leadership, and an idea which provides "a complete answer to any question that arises in the struggle for national liberation".[201]Juche was pronounced in December 1955 in a speech calledOn Eliminating Dogmatism and Formalism and Establishing Juche in Ideological Work in order to emphasize a Korea-centered revolution.[201] Its core tenets areeconomic self-sufficiency, military self-reliance and an independent foreign policy. The roots ofJuche were made up of a complex mixture of factors, including the popularity of Kim Il Sung, the conflict with pro-Soviet and pro-Chinese dissenters, and Korea's centuries-long struggle for independence.[202]Juche was introduced into the constitution in 1972.[203][204]
Juche was initially promoted as a "creative application" ofMarxism–Leninism, but in the mid-1970s, it was described by statepropaganda in North Korea as "the only scientific thought... and most effective revolutionary theoretical structure that leads to the future of communist society".[205]Juche eventually replaced Marxism–Leninism entirely by the 1980s,[206] and in 1992 references to the latter were omitted from the constitution.[207] The 2009 constitution dropped references to communism and elevated theSongun military first policy while explicitly confirming the position of Kim Jong Il.[208] However, the constitution retains references to socialism.[209] The WPK reasserted its commitment to communism in 2021.[210]Juche's concepts of self-reliance have evolved with time and circumstances, but still provide the groundwork for the spartan austerity, sacrifice, and discipline demanded by the party.[211]
North Korean citizens paying respect to the statues of Kim Il Sung (left) and Kim Jong Il at theMansudae Grand Monument
Since the founding of the nation, North Korea's supreme leadership has stayed within the Kim family, which in North Korea is referred to as theMount Paektu Bloodline, with an extensivecult of personality surrounding them. It is a three-generation lineage descending from the country's first leader, Kim Il Sung, who developed a cult of personality closely tied to the state philosophy ofJuche, which was later passed on to his successors: his son Kim Jong Il in 1994 and grandson Kim Jong Un in 2011.[212][213]
The cult of personality surrounding the Kim family has been crucial for legitimizing the family's hereditary succession.[214] The control the North Korean government exercises over many aspects of the nation's culture is used to perpetuate the cult of personality.[215][216] While visiting North Korea in 1979, journalist Bradley Martin wrote that nearly all music, art, and sculpture that he observed glorified "Great Leader" Kim Il Sung, whose personality cult was then being extended to his son, "Dear Leader" Kim Jong Il.[217]
Kim Jong Un and his sisterKim Yo Jong (right) in March 2018
Critics maintain that Kim Jong Il's personality cult was inherited from his father. Kim Jong Il was often the center of attention throughout ordinary life. His birthday, called theDay of the Shining Star, is one of the most importantpublic holidays in the country. Kim Jong Il's personality cult, although significant, was not as extensive as his father's. One point of view is that Kim Jong Il's cult of personality was solely out of respect for Kim Il Sung or out of fear of punishment for failure to pay homage,[220] while North Korean government sources consider it genuine hero worship.[221]
As a result of its isolation, North Korea is sometimes known as the "hermit kingdom", a term that originally referred to the isolationism in the latter part of the Joseon period.[231] Initially, North Korea had diplomatic ties only with other communist countries, and even today, most of the foreign embassies accredited to North Korea are located inBeijing rather than in Pyongyang.[232] In the 1960s and 1970s, it pursued an independent foreign policy, established relations with many developing countries, and joined the Non-Aligned Movement. In the late 1980s and the 1990s its foreign policy was thrown into turmoil with the collapse of theSoviet Bloc. Suffering an economic crisis, it closed a number of its embassies. At the same time, North Korea sought to build relations with developed free market countries.[224]
North Korean leader Kim Jong Un meeting with Russian PresidentVladimir Putin, 25 April 2019
The Korean Demilitarized Zone with South Korea remains the most heavily fortified border in the world.[240][241] Inter-Korean relations are at the core of North Korean diplomacy and have seen numerous shifts in the last few decades. 1972, the two Koreas agreed in principle to achieve reunification through peaceful means and without foreign interference.[242] On 10 October 1980, the then North Korean leader Kim Il Sung proposed a federation between North and South Korea in which the respective political systems would initially remain.[243] However, relations remained cool well until the early 1990s, with a brief period in the early 1980s when North Korea offered to provide flood relief to its southern neighbor.[244] Although the offer was initially welcomed, talks over how to deliver the relief goods broke down and none of the promised aid ever crossed the border.[245] The two countries also organized a reunion of 92 separated families.[246]
South Korean aid convoy entering North Korea through the Demilitarized Zone, 1998
TheSunshine Policy instituted by South Korean presidentKim Dae-jung in 1998 was a watershed in inter-Korean relations. It encouraged other countries to engage with the North, which allowed Pyongyang to normalize relations with a number of European Union states and contributed to the establishment of joint North-South economic projects. The culmination of the Sunshine Policy was the2000 inter-Korean summit, when Kim Dae-jung visited Kim Jong Il in Pyongyang.[247] Both North and South Korea signed theJune 15th North–South Joint Declaration, in which both sides promised to seek peaceful reunification.[248] On 4 October 2007, South Korean presidentRoh Moo-hyun and Kim Jong Il signed an eight-point peace agreement.[249] However, relations worsened when South Korean presidentLee Myung-bak adopted a more hard-line approach and suspended aid deliveries pending the de-nuclearization of the North. In 2009, North Korea responded by ending all of its previous agreements with the South.[250] The next few years witnessed a string of hostilities, including the alleged North Korean involvement in thesinking of South Korean warshipCheonan,[144] mutual ending of diplomatic talks,[251] and North Korean artilleryattack on Yeonpyeongdo.[252]
In May 2017, Moon Jae-in was elected president of South Korea with a promise to return to the Sunshine Policy.[253] In February 2018, a détente developed at the Winter Olympics held in South Korea.[151] In April, South Korean president Moon Jae-in and Kim Jong Un met at the DMZ, and, in thePanmunjom Declaration, pledged to work for peace and nuclear disarmament.[254] Relations deterioated again under the Presidency ofYoon Suk Yeol. In January 2024, North Korea officially announced through its leader Kim Jong Un that it would no longer seek reunification with South Korea, identifying the country as a "hostile state.[255][256]
The North Korean armed forces, or theKorean People's Army (KPA), is estimated to comprise 1,280,000 active and 6,300,000 reserve and paramilitary troops, making it one of thelargest military institutions in the world.[257] With an active duty army consisting of4.9% of its population, North Korea maintains the fourthlargest active military force in the world behind China, India and the United States.[258] About 20 percent of men aged 17–54 serve in the regular armed forces,[258] and approximately one in every 25 citizens is an enlisted soldier.[259][260]
The sale of weapons to North Korea by other states is prohibited by UN sanctions, and the KPA's conventional capabilities are limited by a number of factors including obsolete equipment, insufficient fuel supplies and a shortage of digitalcommand and control assets. To compensate for these deficiencies, the KPA has deployed a wide range ofasymmetric warfare technologies including anti-personnel blinding lasers,GPS jammers,[270]midget submarines andhuman torpedoes,[271]stealth paint,[272] andcyberwarfare units.[273][274] In 2015, North Korea was reported to employ 6,000 sophisticated computer security personnel in a cyberwarfare unit operating out of China.[275] KPA units were blamed for the 2014Sony Pictures hack,[275]
Much of the equipment in use by the KPA is engineered and manufactured bythe domestic defense industry. Weapons are manufactured in roughly 1,800 underground defense industry plants scattered throughout the country, most of them located inChagang Province.[276] The defense industry is capable of producing a full range of weapons, and may even have limited jet aircraft manufacturing capacity.[277] According to North Korean state media, military expenditure amounted to 15.8 percent of the state budget in 2010.[278] The U.S. State Department has estimated that North Korea's military spending averaged 23% of its GDP from 2004 to 2014, the highest level in the world.[279]
A map of political prison camps in North Korea. An estimated 40% of prisoners die of malnutrition.[280]
The state ofhuman rights in North Korea has been widely condemned. A2014 UN inquiry into the DPRK's human rights record found evidence for "systematic, widespread and gross human rights violations" and stated that "the gravity, scale and nature of these violations reveal a state that does not have any parallel in the contemporary world",[281] withAmnesty International andHuman Rights Watch holding similar views.[282][283][284] The UN inquiry has accused North Korea ofcrimes against humanity.[285][286][287] North Koreans have been referred to as "some of the world's most brutalized people" byHuman Rights Watch, because of the severe restrictions placed on theirpolitical andeconomic freedoms.[283][284] There are restrictions on the freedom of association, expression and movement; arbitrary detention, torture and other ill-treatment result in death and execution.[288] Citizens in North Korea are generally not permitted to leave the country at will and its government denies access to UN human rights observers.[289][290]
The Ministry of State Security extrajudicially apprehends and imprisons those accused of political crimes without due process.[291] People perceived as hostile to the government, such as Christians or critics of the leadership,[292] are deported to labor camps without trial,[293] often with their whole family and mostly without any chance of being released.[294] Forced labor is part of an established system ofpolitical repression.[295] Based on satellite images and defector testimonies, an estimated 200,000 prisoners are held in six large prison camps,[292][296] where they are made to work to right their wrongdoings.[297] Supporters of the government who deviate from the government line are subject toreeducation in sections oflabor camps set aside for that purpose. Those who are deemedpolitically rehabilitated may reassume responsible government positions on their release.[298] TheInternational Coalition to Stop Crimes Against Humanity in North Korea (ICNK) estimates that over 10,000 people die in North Korean prison camps every year.[299]
The North Korean population is strictly managed by the state and all aspects of daily life are subordinated to party and state planning. According to US government reports, employment is managed by the party on the basis of political reliability, and travel is tightly controlled by the Ministry of People's Security.[300] The US State Department says that North Koreans do not have a choice in the jobs they work and are not free to change jobs at will.[295] With 1,100,000 people inmodern slavery (via forced labor), North Korea is ranked highest in the world in terms of the percentage of population in modern slavery, with 10.4 percent enslaved according to theWalk Free's 2018Global Slavery Index.[301][302] North Korea is the only country in the world that has not explicitly criminalized some form of modern slavery.[303] A United Nations report listed slavery among the crimes against humanity occurring in North Korea.[304] According to the US State Department, the North Korean government does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination ofhuman trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so.[295] North Korea has trafficked thousands of its own citizens allegedly as forced laborers to other countries, where most of the laborers' earnings are pocketed by Pyongyang.[305]
The North Korean government rejects the human rights abuse claims,[306][307] calling them a smear campaign and a human rights racket made to topple the government.[308][309][310] In a 2014 report to the UN, North Korea dismissed accusations of atrocities as wild rumors.[306] The government, however, admitted some human rights issues related to living conditions and stated that it is working to improve them.[310]
Historical GDP per capita estimates of North Korea, 1820–2018Mirae Scientists Street in Pyongyang
North Korea has maintained one of the most closed and centralized economies in the world since the 1940s.[311] For several decades, it followed the Soviet pattern of five-year plans with the ultimate goal of achieving self-sufficiency. Extensive Soviet and Chinese support allowed North Korea to rapidly recover from the Korean War and register very high growth rates. Systematic inefficiency began to arise around 1960, when the economy shifted from theextensive to theintensive development stage. The shortage of skilled labor, energy, arable land and transportation significantly impeded long-term growth and resulted in consistent failure to meet planning objectives.[312] The major slowdown of the economy contrasted with South Korea, which surpassed the North in terms of absoluteGDP and per capita income by the 1980s.[313] North Korea declared the last seven-year plan unsuccessful in December 1993 and thereafter stopped announcing plans.[314]
The loss ofEastern Bloc trading partners and a series of natural disasters throughout the 1990s caused severe hardships, including widespreadfamine. By 2000, the situation improved owing to a massive international food assistance effort, but the economy continues to suffer from food shortages, dilapidated infrastructure and a critically low energy supply.[315] In an attempt to recover from the collapse, the government began structural reforms in 1998 that formally legalizedprivate ownership of assets and decentralized control over production.[316] A second round of reforms in 2002 led to an expansion of market activities, partialmonetization, flexible prices and salaries, and the introduction of incentives and accountability techniques.[317] Despite these changes, North Korea remains acommand economy where the state owns almost all means of production and development priorities are defined by the government.[315]
The economy is heavily nationalized.[327] Food and housing are extensively subsidized by the state; education and healthcare are free;[328] and the payment of taxes was officially abolished in 1974.[329] A variety of goods are available in department stores and supermarkets in Pyongyang,[330] though most of the population relies on small-scalejangmadang markets.[331][332] In 2009, the government attempted to stem the expanding free market by banning jangmadang and the use of foreign currency,[315] heavily devaluing the won and restricting the convertibility of savings in the old currency,[333] but the resultinginflation spike and rare public protests caused a reversal of these policies.[334] Private trade is dominated by women because most men are required to be present at their workplace, even though many state-owned enterprises are non-operational.[335]
Industry and services employ 65%[336] of North Korea's 17.6 million labor force.[326] Major industries include machine building, military equipment, chemicals, mining, metallurgy, textiles, food processing andtourism.[337]Iron ore andcoal production are among the few sectors where North Korea performs significantly better than itssouthern neighbor—it produces about 10 times more of each resource.[338] Using ex-Romanian drilling rigs, several oil exploration companies have confirmed significant oil reserves in the North Korean shelf of the Sea of Japan, and in areas south of Pyongyang.[339] The agricultural sector was shattered by the natural disasters of the 1990s.[340] Its 3,500cooperatives and state farms[341] were moderately successful until the mid-1990s[342] but now experience chronicfertilizer and equipment shortages. Rice, corn, soybeans andpotatoes are some of the primary crops.[315] A significant contribution to the food supply comes from commercial fishing andaquaculture.[315] Smaller specialized farms, managed by the state, also produce high-value crops, includingginseng,honey,matsutake and herbs fortraditional Korean andChinese medicine.[343]Tourism has been a growing sector for the past decade,[344] with North Korea aiming to increase the number of foreign visitors through projects like theMasikryong Ski Resort.[345]
Transport infrastructure in North Korea includes railways, highways, water and air routes, but rail transport is by far the most widespread. North Korea has some 5,200 kilometers (3,200 mi) of railways mostly instandard gauge which carry 80% of annual passenger traffic and 86% of freight, but electricity shortages undermine their efficiency.[346] Construction of ahigh-speed railway connecting Kaesong, Pyongyang andSinuiju with speeds exceeding 200 kilometers per hour (120 mph) was approved in 2013.[347][needs update] North Korea connects with theTrans-Siberian Railway throughRajin.
Road transport is very limited—only 724 kilometers (450 mi) of the 25,554 kilometers (15,879 mi) road network are paved,[348] and maintenance on most roads is poor.[349] Only 2% of the freight capacity is supported by river and sea transport, and air traffic is negligible.[346] All port facilities are ice-free and host a merchant fleet of 158 vessels.[350] 81 airports and 8 helipads[326] are operational and the largest serve the state-run airline,Air Koryo.[346] Cars are relatively rare,[351] but bicycles are common.[352][353] There is only oneinternational airport—Pyongyang International Airport—serviced by Russia and China (seeList of public airports in North Korea)
Satellite image of theKorean Peninsula at night, showing the difference in lighting between North and South Korea[354]
North Korea's energy infrastructure is obsolete and in disrepair. Power shortages are chronic and would not be alleviated even by electricity imports because the poorly maintained grid causes significant losses during transmission.[355][356]Coal accounts for 70% of primary energy production, followed byhydroelectric power with 17%.[346] The government under Kim Jong Un has increased emphasis on renewable energy projects like wind farms, solar parks, solar heating andbiomass.[357] North Korea's long-term objective is to curb fossil fuel usage and reach an output of 5 millionkilowatts from renewable sources by 2044, up from its current total of 430,000 kilowatts from all sources. Wind power is projected to satisfy 15% of the country's total energy demand under this strategy.[358] North Korea also strives to develop its own civilian nuclear program. These efforts are under much international dispute due to their military applications and concerns about safety.[359]
R&D efforts are concentrated at the State Academy of Sciences, which runs 40 research institutes, 200 smaller research centers, a scientific equipment factory and six publishing houses.[360] The government considers science and technology to be directly linked to economic development.[361][362] A five-year scientific plan emphasizing IT, biotechnology, nanotechnology, marine technology, and laser and plasma research was carried out in the early 2000s.[361]
Unha-3 space launch vehicle at Sohae Satellite Launching Station
Usage of communication technology is controlled by theMinistry of Post and Telecommunications. An adequate nationwidefiber-optictelephone system with 1.18 million fixed lines[326] and expanding mobile coverage is in place.[10] Most phones are installed for senior government officials and installation requires written explanation why the user needs a telephone and how it will be paid for.[370] Cellular coverage is available with a4G network operated byKoryolink andKangsong NET.[371] The number of subscribers has increased from 3,000 in 2002[372] to almost two million in 2013.[373] International calls through either fixed or cellular service are restricted, andmobile Internet is not available.[373] Internet access itself is limited to a handful of elite users and scientists. Instead, North Korea has awalled gardenintranet system calledKwangmyong,[374] which is maintained and monitored by theKorea Computer Center.[375] Its content is limited to state media, chat services, message boards,[374] an e-mail service and an estimated 1,000–5,500 websites.[376] Computers employ theRed Star OS, an operating system derived fromLinux, with auser shell visually similar to that ofmacOS.[376]
Development of life expectancy in North Korea and South Korea
With the exception of a smallChinese community and a few ethnicJapanese, North Korea's 25,971,909[377][378] people are ethnically homogeneous.[379] Demographic experts in the 20th century estimated that the population would grow to 25.5 million by 2000 and 28 million by 2010, but this increase never occurred due to theNorth Korean famine.[380] The famine began in 1995, lasted for three years, and resulted in the deaths of between 240,000 and 420,000 North Koreans.[134]
International donors led by the United States initiated shipments of food through theWorld Food Program in 1997 to combat the famine.[381] The situation gradually improved: the number of malnourished children declined from 60% in 1998[382] to 28% in 2013.[383] Domestic food production almost recovered to the recommended annual level of 5.37 million tons of cereal equivalent in 2013,[384] but the World Food Program reported a continuing lack of dietary diversity and access to fats and proteins.[385] By the mid-2010s national levels of severe wasting, an indication of famine-like conditions, were lower than in other low-income countries and about on par with developing nations in the Pacific and East Asia. Children's health and nutrition is significantly better on a number of indicators than in many other Asian countries.[386]
The famine had a significant impact on the population growth rate, which declined to 0.9% annually in 2002.[380] It was 0.4% in 2024.[326] Late marriages after military service, limited housing space and long hours of work or political studies further exhaust the population and reduce growth.[380] The national birth rate is 13.2 births per year per 1,000 population.[326] Two-thirds of households consist ofextended families mostly living in two-room units.Marriage is virtually universal anddivorce is extremely rare.[387]
North Korea shares theKorean language with South Korea, although somedialectal differences exist within both Koreas.[382] North Koreans refer to theirPyongan dialect asmunhwaŏ ("cultured language") as opposed to the dialects of South Korea, especially theSeoul dialect orp'yojun'ŏ ("standard language"), which are viewed as decadent because of its use of loanwords fromChinese andEuropean languages (particularlyEnglish).[388][389] Words of Chinese, Manchu or Western origin have been eliminated frommunhwa along with the usage of Chinesehancha characters.[388] Written language uses only theChosŏn'gŭl (Hangul) phonetic alphabet, developed underSejong the Great (1418–1450).[390][391]
North Korea is officially anatheist state.[392][393] Its constitution guaranteesfreedom of religion under Article 68, but this principle is limited by the requirement that religion may not be used as a pretext to harm the state, introduce foreign forces, or harm the existing social order.[199][394] Religious practice is therefore restricted,[395][396] despite nominal constitutional protections.[397] Proselytizing is also prohibited due to concerns about foreign influence. The number of Christian churchgoers nonetheless more than doubled between the 1980s and the early 2000s due to the recruitment of Christians who previously worshipped privately or in small house churches.[398] TheOpen Doors mission, a Protestant group based in the United States and founded during the Cold War era, claims the most severepersecution of Christians in the world occurs in North Korea.[399]
There are no known official statistics of religions in North Korea. According to a 2020 study published by theCentre for the Study of World Christianity, 73% of the population areirreligious (58%agnostic, 15%atheist), 13% practiceChondoism, 12% practiceKorean shamanism, 1.5% areBuddhist, and less than 0.5% practice another religion such asChristianity,Islam, orChinese folk religion.[400] Amnesty International has expressed concerns about religious persecution in North Korea.[290] Pro-North groups such as the Paektu Solidarity Alliance deny these claims, saying that multiple religious facilities exist across the nation.[401] Some religious places of worship are located in foreign embassies in the capital city of Pyongyang.[402] Five Christian churches built with state funds stand in Pyongyang: three Protestant, one Roman Catholic, and one Russian Orthodox.[398] Critics claim these are showcases for foreigners.[403][404]
Buddhism andConfucianism still influence spirituality.[405] Chondoism ("Heavenly Way") is an indigenoussyncretic belief combining elements of Korean shamanism, Buddhism,Taoism andCatholicism that is officially represented by the WPK-controlledChondoist Chongu Party.[406] Chondoism is recognized and favored by the government, being seen as an indigenous form of "revolutionary religion".[394]
The2008 census listed the entire population as literate.[387] An 11-year free, compulsory cycle of primary and secondary education is provided in more than 27,000nursery schools, 14,000kindergartens, 4,800 four-year primary and 4,700 six-year secondary schools.[382] 77% of males and 79% of females aged 30–34 have finished secondary school.[387] An additional 300 universities and colleges offerhigher education.[382]
Most graduates from the compulsory program do not attend university but begin their obligatory military service or proceed to work in farms or factories instead. The main deficiencies of higher education are the heavy presence of ideological subjects, which comprise 50% of courses in social studies and 20% in sciences,[407] and the imbalances in curriculum. The study of natural sciences is greatly emphasized while social sciences are neglected.[408]Heuristics is actively applied to develop the independence and creativity of students throughout the system.[409] The study ofRussian andEnglish was made compulsory in upper middle schools in 1978.[410]
North Korea has a life expectancy of 72.3 years in 2019, according to HDR 2020.[411] While North Korea is classified as a low-income country, the structure of North Korea's causes of death (2013) is unlike that of other low-income countries.[412] Instead, it is closer to worldwide averages, with non-communicable diseases—such as cardiovascular disease and cancers—accounting for 84 percent of the total deaths in 2016.[413] According to the World Bank report of 2016 (based onWHO's estimate), only 9.5% of the total deaths recorded in North Korea are attributed to communicable diseases and maternal, prenatal and nutrition conditions, a figure which is slightly lower than that of South Korea (10.1%) and one fifth of other low-income countries (50.1%) but higher than that of high income countries (6.7%).[414] Only one out of ten leading causes of overall deaths in North Korea is attributed to communicable diseases (lower respiratory infection), a disease which is reported to have declined by six percent since 2007.[415]
In 2013,cardiovascular disease as a single disease group was reported as the largest cause of death in North Korea.[412] The three major causes of death in North Korea arestroke,COPD andischaemic heart disease.[415] Non-communicable diseases risk factors in North Korea include high rates of urbanization, an aging society, and high rates ofsmoking andalcohol consumption amongst men.[412] Maternal mortality is lower than other low-income countries, but significantly higher than South Korea and other high income countries, at 89 per 100,000 live births.[416] In 2008 child mortality was estimated to be 45 per 1,000, which is much better than other economically comparable countries.Chad for example had a child mortality rate of 120 per 1,000, despite the fact that Chad was most likely wealthier than North Korea at the time.[129] According to a 2003 report by theUnited States Department of State, almost 100% of the population has access to water and sanitation.[417] Further, 80% of the population had access toimproved sanitation facilities in 2015.[418]
A free universal insurance system is in place.[328] Quality of medical care varies significantly by region[419] and is often low, with severe shortages of equipment, drugs and anesthetics.[333] According to WHO, expenditure on health per capita is one of the lowest in the world.[333]Preventive medicine is emphasized through physical exercise and sports, nationwide monthly checkups and routine spraying of public places against disease. Every individual has a lifetime health card which contains a full medical record.[420] Healthcare Access and Quality Index, as calculated byIHME, was reported to stand at 62.3, much lower than that of South Korea.[421] North Korea has the highest number of doctors per capita amongst low-income countries, with 3.7 physicians per 1,000 people, a figure which is also significantly higher than that of South Korea, according toWHO's data.[422] Conflicting reports between Amnesty and WHO have emerged, where the Amnesty report claimed that North Korea had an inadequate health care system, while the Director of the World Health Organization claimed that North Korea's healthcare system was considered the envy of the developing world and had "no lack of doctors and nurses".[423]
According to North Korean documents and refugee testimonies,[424] all North Koreans are sorted into groups according to theirSongbun, anascribed status system based on a citizen's assessed loyalty to the government. Based on their own behavior and the political, social, and economic background of their family for three generations as well as behavior by relatives within that range, Songbun is allegedly used to determine whether an individual is trusted with responsibility or given certain opportunities.[425] Songbun reportedly affects access to educational and employment opportunities and particularly whether a person is eligible to join North Korea's ruling party.[425]
There are 3 main classifications and about 50 sub-classifications. According to Kim Il Sung, speaking in 1958, the loyal "core class" constituted 25% of the North Korean population, the "wavering class" 55%, and the "hostile class" 20%.[424] The highest status is accorded to individuals descended from those who participated with Kim Il Sung in the resistance against Japanese occupation before and during World War II and to those who were factory workers, laborers, or peasants in 1950.[426] While some analysts believe private commerce recently changed the Songbun system to some extent,[427] most North Korean refugees say it remains a commanding presence in everyday life.[424] The North Korean government claims all citizens are equal and denies any discrimination on the basis of family background.[428]
Despite a historically strong Chinese influence, Korean culture has shaped its own unique identity.[429] It came under attack during theJapanese rule from 1910 to 1945, when Japan enforced acultural assimilation policy. Koreans were forced to learn and speak Japanese, adopt the Japanese family name system andShinto religion, and were forbidden to write or speak the Korean language in schools, businesses, or public places.[430]
After the peninsula was divided in 1945, two distinct cultures formed out of the common Korean heritage. North Koreans have little exposure to foreign influence.[431] The revolutionary struggle and the brilliance of the leadership are some of the main themes in art. "Reactionary" elements from traditional culture have been discarded and cultural forms with a "folk" spirit have been reintroduced.[431]
Visual arts are generally produced in the aesthetic ofsocialist realism.[435] North Korean painting combines the influence of Soviet and Japanese visual expression to instill a sentimental loyalty to the system.[436] All artists in North Korea are required to join the Artists' Union, and the best among them can receive an official license to portray the leaders. Portraits and sculptures depicting Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il and Kim Jong Un are classed as "Number One works".[435]
Most aspects of art have been dominated byMansudae Art Studio since its establishment in 1959. It employs around 1,000 artists in what is likely the biggest art factory in the world where paintings,murals,posters and monuments are designed and produced.[437] The studio has commercialized its activity and sells its works to collectors in a variety of countries including China, where it is in high demand.[436]Mansudae Overseas Projects is a subdivision of Mansudae Art Studio that carries out construction of large-scale monuments for international customers.[437] Some of the projects include theAfrican Renaissance Monument inSenegal,[438] and theHeroes' Acre inNamibia.[439]
Kim Il Sung's personal works are considered "classical masterpieces" while the ones created under his instruction are labeled "models ofJuche literature". These includeThe Fate of a Self-Defense Corps Man,The Song of Korea andImmortal History, a series of historical novels depicting the suffering of Koreans under Japanese occupation.[431][443] More than four million literary works were published between the 1980s and the early 2000s, but almost all of them belong to a narrow variety of political genres like "army-first revolutionary literature".[444]
The government emphasized optimistic folk-based tunes and revolutionary music throughout most of the 20th century.[431] Ideological messages are conveyed through massive orchestral pieces like the "Five Great Revolutionary Operas" based on traditional Koreanch'angguk.[443] Revolutionary operas differ from their Western counterparts by adding traditional instruments to the orchestra and avoidingrecitative segments.[446]Sea of Blood is the most widely performed of the Five Great Operas: since its premiere in 1971, it has been played over 1,500 times,[447] and its 2010 tour in China was a major success.[446] Westernclassical music byBrahms,Tchaikovsky,Stravinsky and other composers is performed both by theState Symphony Orchestra and student orchestras.[448]
North Korean media are under some of the strictest government control in the world. Thecensorship in North Korea encompasses all the information produced by the media. Monitored heavily by government officials, the media is strictly used to reinforce ideals approved by the government.[454] There is no freedom of press in North Korea as all the media is controlled and filtered through governmental censors.[454] In 2025, North Korea ranked 179th out of 180 countries inReporters Without Borders' annualWorld Press Freedom Index.[455] According toFreedom House, all media outlets serve as government mouthpieces, all journalists are party members and listening to foreign broadcasts carries the threat of the death penalty.[456] Cultural products from enemy states such as South Korea areoutlawed by the North Korean government, with a maximum penalty of death.[457]
Government policies towardsfilm are no different from those applied to other arts—motion pictures serve to fulfill the targets of "social education". Some of the most influential films are based on historic events (An Jung-geun shoots Itō Hirobumi) or folk tales (Hong Gildong).[443] Most movies have predictable propaganda story lines which make cinema an unpopular entertainment; viewers only see films that feature their favorite actors.[458] Western productions are only available at private showings to high-ranking Party members.[459][460] Access to foreign media products is available through smuggledDVDs and television or radio broadcasts in border areas.[461] Some Western films have been smuggled across the borders of North Korea, allowing for access to the North Korean citizens.[462][463]
The main news provider is theKorean Central News Agency. All 12 majornewspapers and 20 periodicals, includingRodong Sinmun, the official newspaper of the Party Central Committee, are published in the capital.[464] There are three state-owned TV stations. Two of them broadcast only on weekends andKorean Central Television is on air every day in the evenings.[465] TheAssociated Press opened the first Western all-format, full-time bureau in Pyongyang in 2012.[466]
Media coverage of North Korea has often been inadequate as a result of the country's isolation. Stories like Kim Jong Un executing his ex-girlfriend or feeding his uncle to a pack of hungry dogs have been circulated by foreign media as truth despite the lack of a credible source.[467] Many of the claims originate from the South Koreanright-wing newspaperThe Chosun Ilbo.[468] Max Fisher ofThe Washington Post has written that "almost any story [on North Korea] is treated as broadly credible, no matter how outlandish or thinly sourced".[469] Occasional deliberate disinformation on the part of North Korean establishments further complicates the issue.[467]
Korean cuisine has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Originating from ancientagricultural and nomadic traditions in southernManchuria and the Korean Peninsula, it has gone through a complex interaction of the natural environment and different cultural trends.[470]Rice dishes andkimchi are staple Korean food. In a traditional meal, they accompany both side dishes (panch'an) and main courses likechuk,pulgogi ornoodles.Soju liquor is the best-known traditional Korean spirit.[471]
^North Koreans use the nameChosŏn (조선,朝鮮) when referring to North Korea or Korea as a whole. The literal translation of North Korea,Pukchosŏn (북조선,北朝鮮), is rarely used, although it may be found in sources that predate the Korean War. South Koreans useBukhan (북한,北韓) when referring to North Korea, derived from the South Korean name for Korea,Hanguk (한국,韓國).
^North Korea's border with South Korea is a disputed border as both countries claim the entirety of the Korean Peninsula.
^The constitution of the DPRK, Article 1, states that "The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is an independent socialist State representing the interests of all the Korean people."[13]
^In spite of the United States' recognition of South Koreade jure,Sweden acts as itsprotecting power.
"Han Chinese built four commanderies, or local military units, to rule the peninsula as far south as the Han River, with a core area at Lolang (Nangnang in Korean), near present-day P'yongyang. It is illustrative of the relentlessly different historiography practiced in North Korea and South Korea, as well as both countries' dubious projection backward of Korean nationalism, that North Korean historians denied that the Lolang district was centered in Korea and placed it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing."
Connor, Edgar V. (2003).Korea: Current Issues and Historical Background. Nova Science Publishers. p. 112.ISBN978-1-59033-443-0.
"They place it northwest of the peninsula, possibly near Beijing, in order to de-emphasize China's influence on ancient Korean history."
"Immediately after destroying Wiman Chosŏn, the Han empire established administrative units to rule large territories in the northern Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria."
"When material evidence from the Han commandery site excavated during the colonial period began to be reinterpreted by Korean nationalist historians as the first full-fledged "foreign" occupation in Korean history, Lelang's location in the heart of the Korean peninsula became particularly irksome because the finds seemed to verify Japanese colonial theories concerning the dependency of Korean civilization on China."
"At present, the site of Lelang and surrounding ancient Han Chinese remains are situated in the North Korean capital of Pyongyang. Although North Korean scholars have continued to excavate Han dynasty tombs in the postwar period, they have interpreted them as manifestations of the Kochoson or the Koguryo kingdom."
"Lelang Commandery was crucial to understanding the early history of Korea, which lasted from 108 BCE to 313 CE around the Pyongyang area. However, because of its nature as a Han colony and the exceptional attention paid to it by Japanese colonial scholars for making claims of the innate heteronomy of Koreans, post 1945 Korean scholars intentionally avoided the issue of Lelang."
"But when Emperor Wu conquered Choson, all the small barbarian tribes in the northeastern region were incorporated into the established Han commanderies because of the overwhelming military might of Han China."
References
Citations
^"Korea, North".The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 6 December 2023.Archived from the original on 12 August 2015. Retrieved8 December 2023.
^"Ancient civilizations" (Press release). Canada: Royal Ontario Museum. 12 December 2005.Archived from the original on 8 January 2010. Retrieved25 April 2010.
^"Prehistoric Korea".About Korea. Archived fromthe original on 2 March 2008. Retrieved12 July 2008., Office of the Prime Minister.
"An extreme manifestation of nationalism and the family cult was the revival of interest in Tangun, the mythical founder of the first Korean state... Most textbooks and professional historians, however, treat him as a myth."
"The Tangun myth became more popular with groups that wanted Korea to be independent; the Kija myth was more useful to those who wanted to show that Korea had a strong affinity to China."
"If a choice is to be made between them, one is faced with the fact that the Tangun, with his supernatural origin, is more clearly a mythological figure than Kija."
^Peterson, Mark; Margulies, Phillip (2009).A Brief History of Korea. Infobase Publishing. p. 6.ISBN978-1-4381-2738-5.
^Janhunen, Juha (2010). "RReconstructing the Language Map of Prehistorical Northeast Asia".Studia Orientalia (108).... there are strong indications that the neighbouring Baekje state (in the southwest) was predominantly Japonic-speaking until it was linguistically Koreanized.
^Yi, Hyŏn-hŭi; Pak, Sŏng-su; Yun, Nae-hyŏn (2005).New history of Korea. Jimoondang. p. 201.ISBN978-89-88095-85-0.Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved26 August 2016.He launched a military expedition to expand his territory, opening the golden age of Goguryeo.
Yi, Ki-baek (1984).A New History of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 47.ISBN978-0-674-61576-2.Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved29 July 2016.Koguryŏ was the first to open hostilities, with a bold assault across the Liao River against Liao-hsi, in 598. The Sui emperor, Wen Ti, launched a retaliatory attack on Koguryŏ but met with reverses and turned back in mid-course. Yang Ti, the next Sui emperor, proceeded in 612 to mount an invasion of unprecedented magnitude, marshalling a huge force said to number over a million men. And when his armies failed to take Liao-tung Fortress (modern Liao-yang), the anchor of Koguryŏ's first line of defense, he had a nearly a third of his forces, some 300,000 strong, break off the battle there and strike directly at the Koguryŏ capital of P'yŏngyang. But the Sui army was lured into a trap by the famed Koguryŏ commander Ŭlchi Mundŏk, and suffered a calamitous defeat at the Salsu (Ch'ŏngch'ŏn) River. It is said that only 2,700 of the 300,000 Sui soldiers who had crossed the Yalu survived to find their way back, and the Sui emperor now lifted the siege of Liao-tung Fortress and withdrew his forces to China proper. Yang Ti continued to send his armies against Koguryŏ but again without success, and before long his war-weakened empire crumbled.
Nahm, Andrew C. (2005).A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History (Second revised ed.). Seoul: Hollym International Corporation. p. 18.ISBN978-0-930878-68-9.China, which had been split into many states since the early 3rd century, was reunified by the Sui dynasty at the end of the 6th century. Soon after that, Sui China mobilized a large number of troops and launched war against Koguryŏ. However, the people of Koguryŏ were united and they were able to repel the Chinese aggressors. In 612, Sui troops invaded Korea again, but Koguryŏ forces fought bravely and destroyed Sui troops everywhere. General Ŭlchi Mundŏk of Koguryŏ completely wiped out some 300,000 Sui troops which came across the Yalu River in the battles near the Salsu River (now Ch'ŏngch'ŏn River) with his ingenious military tactics. Only 2,700 Sui troops were able to flee from Korea. The Sui dynasty, which wasted so much energy and manpower in aggressive wars against Koguryŏ, fell in 618.
^Lee, Injae; Miller, Owen; Park, Jinhoon; Yi, Hyun-Hae (15 December 2014).Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. pp. 64–65.ISBN978-1-107-09846-6.Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved24 February 2017.
^Reischauer, Edwin Oldfather (1 May 1955).Ennins Travels in Tang China. John Wiley & Sons Canada, Limited. pp. 276–283.ISBN978-0-471-07053-5.Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved21 July 2016.From what Ennin tells us, it seems that commerce between East China, Korea and Japan was, for the most part, in the hands of men from Silla. Here in the relatively dangerous waters on the eastern fringes of the world, they performed the same functions as did the traders of the placid Mediterranean on the western fringes. This is a historical fact of considerable significance but one which has received virtually no attention in the standard historical compilations of that period or in the modern books based on these sources. ... While there were limits to the influence of the Koreans along the eastern coast of China, there can be no doubt of their dominance over the waters off these shores. ... The days of Korean maritime dominance in the Far East actually were numbered, but in Ennin's time the men of Silla were still the masters of the seas in their part of the world.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Lee, Ki-Baik (1984).A New History of Korea. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 103.ISBN978-0-674-61576-2.When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom.
^Bowman, John (5 September 2000).Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. p. 202.ISBN978-0-231-50004-3. Retrieved1 August 2016.The Mongolian-Khitan invasions of the late tenth century challenge the stability of the Koryo government, but a period of prosperity follows the defeat of the Khitan in 1018..
^Haralambous, Yannis; Horne, P. Scott (28 November 2007).Fonts & Encodings. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 155.ISBN978-0-596-10242-5.Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved8 November 2016.
^Perez, Louis (2013).Japan At War: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 140–141.ISBN978-1-59884-741-3.Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved19 June 2015."Yi's successes gave Korea complete control of the sea lanes around the peninsula, and the Korean navy was able to intercept most of the supplies and communications between Japan and Korea"
^Dowling, Timothy (2011)."Terentii Shtykov".History and the Headlines. ABC-CLIO.Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved26 April 2015.
^Lankov, Andrei. "North Korea in 1945–48: The Soviet Occupation and the Birth of the State".From Stalin to Kim Il Sung – The Formation of North Korea, 1945–1960. pp. 2–3.
^Kim, Samuel S. (2014). "The Evolving Asian System".International Relations of Asia.Rowman & Littlefield. p. 45.ISBN978-1442226418.With three of the four major Cold War fault lines—divided Germany, divided Korea, divided China, and divided Vietnam – East Asia acquired the dubious distinction of having engendered the largest number of armed conflicts resulting in higher fatalities between 1945 and 1994 than any other region or sub-region. Even in Asia, while Central and South Asia produced a regional total of 2.8 million in human fatalities, East Asia's regional total is 10.4 million including theChinese Civil War (1 million), the Korean War (3 million), theVietnam War (2 million), and thePol Potgenocide in Cambodia (1 to 2 million).
^Cumings, Bruce (2011).The Korean War: A History.Modern Library. p. 35.ISBN978-0812978964.Various encyclopedias state that the countries involved in the three-year conflict suffered a total of more than 4 million casualties, of which at least 2 million were civilians—a higher percentage than in World War II or Vietnam. A total of 36,940 Americans lost their lives in the Korean theater; of these, 33,665 were killed in action, while 3,275 died there of nonhostile causes. Some 92,134 Americans were wounded in action, and decades later, 8,176 were still reported as missing. South Korea sustained 1,312,836 casualties, including 415,004 dead. Casualties among other UN allies totaled 16,532, including 3,094 dead. Estimated North Korean casualties numbered 2 million, including about one million civilians and 520,000 soldiers. An estimated 900,000 Chinese soldiers lost their lives in combat.
^Painter, David S. (1999).The Cold War: An International History.Routledge. p. 30.ISBN978-0415153164.Before it ended, the Korean War cost over 3 million people their lives, including over 50,000 US servicemen and women and a much higher number of Chinese and Korean lives. The war also set in motion a number of changes that led to the militarization and intensification of the Cold War.
^Lewy, Guenter (1980).America in Vietnam.Oxford University Press. pp. 450–453.ISBN978-0199874231.For the Korean War the only hard statistic is that of American military deaths, which included 33,629 battle deaths and 20,617 who died of other causes. The North Korean and Chinese Communists never published statistics of their casualties. The number of South Korean military deaths has been given as in excess of 400,000; the South Korean Ministry of Defense puts the number of killed and missing at 281,257. Estimates of communist troops killed are about one-half million. The total number of Korean civilians who died in the fighting, which left almost every major city in North and South Korea in ruins, has been estimated at between 2 and 3 million. This adds up to almost 1 million military deaths and a possible 2.5 million civilians who were killed or died as a result of this extremely destructive conflict. The proportion of civilians killed in the major wars of this century (and not only in the major ones) has thus risen steadily. It reached about 42 percent in World War II and may have gone as high as 70 percent in the Korean War. ... we find that the ratio of civilian to military deaths [in Vietnam] is not substantially different from that of World War II and is well below that of the Korean War.
^Armstrong 2010, p. 1: "The number of Korean dead, injured or missing by war's end approached three million, ten percent of the overall population. The majority of those killed were in the North, which had half of the population of the South; although the DPRK does not have official figures, possibly twelve to fifteen percent of the population was killed in the war, a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II."
^abChung, Chin O.Pyongyang Between Peking and Moscow: North Korea's Involvement in the Sino-Soviet Dispute, 1958–1975. University of Alabama, 1978, p. 45.
^Schaefer, Bernd. "North Korean 'Adventurism' and China's Long Shadow, 1966–1972". Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2004.
^Armstrong, Charles.Tyranny of the Weak: North Korea and the World, 1950–1992. Studies of the Weatherhead East Asian Institute, Columbia University. Cornell University Press. pp. 99–100.
^Na, Hye-yoon (6 January 2021).北, 당원 대폭 늘었나... 당 대회 참석수로 '650만 명' 추정 [Has party membership surged in the north? Estimated attendance of '6.5 million' at party convention].News1 Korea (in Korean).Archived from the original on 28 August 2022. Retrieved28 August 2022.
^Martin 2004, p. 111: "Although it was in that 1955 speech that Kim Il Sung gave full voice to his arguments forjuche, he had been talking along similar lines as early as 1948."
^abWertz, Daniel; JJ Oh; Kim Insung (August 2015)."Issue Brief: DPRK Diplomatic Relations"(PDF). The National Committee on North Korea. pp. 1–7, n4.Archived(PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved17 April 2016.
^Winzig, Jerry."A Look at North Korean Society" (book review of 'Kim Il-song's North Korea' by Helen-Louise Hunter). winzigconsultingservices.com.Archived from the original on 12 May 2018. Retrieved8 June 2011.In North Korea, one's songbun, or socio-economic and class background, is extremely important and is primarily determined at birth. People with the best songbun are descendants of the anti-Japanese guerrillas who fought with Kim Il Sung, followed by people whose parents or grandparents were factory workers, laborers, or poor, small farmers in 1950. "Ranked below them in descending order are forty-seven distinct groups in what must be the most class-differentiated society in the world today." Anyone with a father, uncle, or grandfather who owned land or was a doctor, Christian minister, merchant, or lawyer has low songbun.
^Kretchun, Nat; Kim, Jane (10 May 2012)."A Quiet Opening: North Koreans in a Changing Media Environment"(PDF). InterMedia. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 14 January 2013. Retrieved19 January 2013.The primary focus of the study was on the ability of North Koreans to access outside information from foreign sources through a variety of media, communication technologies and personal sources. The relationship between information exposure on North Koreans' perceptions of the outside world and their own country was also analyzed.
^Harvard International Review. Winter 2016, Vol. 37 Issue 2, pp. 46–50.
^Crocker, L. (22 December 2014). North Korea's Secret Movie Bootleggers: How Western Films Make It Into the Hermit Kingdom.
^Pervis, Larinda B. (2007).North Korea Issues: Nuclear Posturing, Saber Rattling, and International Mischief. Nova Science Publishers. p. 22.ISBN978-1-60021-655-8.
"Country Profile: North Korea"(PDF). Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. July 2007.Archived(PDF) from the original on 7 February 2017. Retrieved4 July 2009.
Abt, Felix (2014).A Capitalist in North Korea: My Seven Years in the Hermit Kingdom. Tuttle Publishing.ISBN9780804844390.
Jackson, Van (2016).Rival Reputations: Coercion and Credibility in US–North Korea Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-107-13331-0., covers 1960s to 2010.
Jackson, Van. "Deterring a Nuclear-Armed Adversary in a Contested Regional Order: The 'Trilemma' of US–North Korea Relations."Asia Policy 23.1 (2017): 97–103.onlineArchived 23 December 2017 at theWayback Machine
Kim, Nam-Sik (Spring–Summer 1982). "North Korea's Power Structure and Foreign Relations: an Analysis of the Sixth Congress of the KWP".The Journal of East Asian Affairs.2 (1):125–151.JSTOR23253510.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Lee, Hong Yung. "North Korea in 2013: Economy, Executions, and Nuclear Brinksmanship."Asian Survey 54.1 (2014): 89–100.OnlineArchived 8 August 2019 at theWayback Machine.
Martin, Bradley K. (2004).Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader: North Korea and the Kim Dynasty. New York: Thomas Dunne Books.ISBN978-0-312-32322-6.
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