| Ninurta 𒀭𒊩𒌆𒅁 | |
|---|---|
God of agriculture, hunting, and war | |
 Assyrian stone relief from the temple of Ninurta atKalhu, showing the god with his thunderbolts pursuingAnzû, who has stolen theTablet of Destinies fromEnlil's sanctuary (Austen Henry LayardMonuments of Nineveh, 2nd Series, 1853) | |
| Abode | Eshumesha temple inNippur LaterKalhu, during Assyrian times |
| Planet | Saturn,Mercury |
| Symbol | Plow and perched bird |
| Mount | Beast with the body of a lion and the tail of a scorpion |
| Parents | Enlil andNinhursag AsUrash,An |
| Consort | As Ninurta:Gula As Ninĝirsu:Bau |
| Equivalents | |
| Greek | Cronus |
| Caananite | Attar |
| Eblaite | Aštabi |
| Roman | Saturn |
Ninurta (Sumerian:𒀭𒊩𒌆𒅁:DNIN.URTA, possible meaning "Lord [of] Barley"),[1] also known asNinĝirsu (Sumerian:𒀭𒎏𒄈𒋢:DNIN.ĜIR2.SU, meaning "Lord [of]Girsu"),[2] is anancient Mesopotamian god associated with farming, healing, hunting, law, scribes, and war who was first worshipped in earlySumer. In the earliest records, he is a god of agriculture and healing, who cures humans of sicknesses and releases them from the power ofdemons. In later times, as Mesopotamia grew more militarized, he became a warrior deity, though he retained many of his earlier agricultural attributes. He was regarded as the son of the chief godEnlil and his maincult center in Sumer was the Eshumesha temple inNippur. Ninĝirsu was honored byKing Gudea ofLagash (ruled 2144–2124 BC), who rebuilt Ninĝirsu's temple in Lagash. Later, Ninurta became beloved by theAssyrians as a formidable warrior. The Assyrian kingAshurnasirpal II (ruled 883–859 BC) built a massive temple for him atKalhu, which became his most important cult center from then on.
In the epic poemLugal-e, Ninurta slays the demonAsag using his talking maceSharur and uses stones to build theTigris andEuphrates rivers to make them useful for irrigation. In a poem sometimes referred to as the "SumerianGeorgica", Ninurta provides agricultural advice to farmers. In an Akkadian myth, he was the champion of the gods against theAnzû bird after it stole theTablet of Destinies from his father Enlil and, in a myth that is alluded to in many works but never fully preserved, he killed a group of warriors known as the "Slain Heroes". His major symbols were a perched bird and a plow.
It has been suggested that Ninurta was the inspiration for the figure ofNimrod, a "mighty hunter" who is mentioned in association with Kalhu in theBook of Genesis, although the view has been disputed.[3] He may also be mentioned in theSecond Book of Kings under the nameNisroch.[a] In the nineteenth century, Assyrian stone reliefs of winged, eagle-headed figures from the temple of Ninurta at Kalhu were commonly, but erroneously, identified as "Nisrochs" and they appear in works offantasy literature from the time period.
Ninurta was worshipped in Mesopotamia as early as the middle of the third millennium BC by the ancientSumerians,[4] and is one of the earliest attested deities in the region.[4][1] His main cult center was the Eshumesha temple in the Sumerian city-state ofNippur,[4][1][5] where he was worshipped as the god of agriculture and the son of the chief-godEnlil.[4][1][5] Though they may have originally been separate deities,[1] in historical times, the god Ninĝirsu, who was worshipped in the Sumerian city-state ofGirsu, was always identified as a local form of Ninurta.[1] According to the AssyriologistsJeremy Black and Anthony Green, the two gods' personalities are "closely intertwined".[1] As the city-state of Girsu declined in importance, Ninĝirsu became increasingly known as "Ninurta".[2] He became primarily characterized by the aggressive, warlike aspect of his nature.[1]
In later times, Ninurta's reputation as a fierce warrior made him immensely popular among the Assyrians.[4][6] In the late second millennium BC, Assyrian kings frequently held names which included the name of Ninurta,[4] such asTukulti-Ninurta ("the trusted one of Ninurta"),Ninurta-apal-Ekur ("Ninurta is the heir of [Ellil's temple] Ekur"), andNinurta-tukulti-Ashur ("Ninurta is the god Aššur's trusted one").[4] Tukulti-Ninurta I (ruled 1243–1207 BC) declares in one inscription that he hunts "at the command of the god Ninurta, who loves me."[4] Similarly,Adad-nirari II (ruled 911–891 BC) claimed Ninurta and Aššur as supporters of his reign,[4] declaring his destruction of their enemies as moral justification for his right to rule.[4] In the ninth century BC, whenAshurnasirpal II (ruled 883–859 BC) moved the capital of the Assyrian Empire toKalhu,[4] the first temple he built there was one dedicated to Ninurta.[4][7][6][8]
The walls of the temple were decorated with stone relief carvings, including one of Ninurta slaying the Anzû bird. Ashurnasirpal II's sonShalmaneser III (ruled 859–824 BC) completed Ninurta'sziggurat at Kalhu and dedicated a stone relief of himself to the god.[4] On the carving, Shalmaneser III's boasts of his military exploits[4] and credits all his victories to Ninurta, declaring that, without Ninurta's aid, none of them would have been possible.[4] WhenAdad-nirari III (ruled 811–783 BC) dedicated a new endowment to the temple of Aššur inAssur, they were sealed with both the seal of Aššur and the seal of Ninurta.[4]
After the capital of Assyria was moved away from Kalhu, Ninurta's importance in the pantheon began to decline.[4]Sargon II favoredNabu, the god of scribes, over Ninurta.[4] Nonetheless, Ninurta still remained an important deity.[4] Even after the kings of Assyria left Kalhu, the inhabitants of the former capital continued to venerate Ninurta,[4] who they called "Ninurta residing in Kalhu".[4] Legal documents from the city record that those who violated their oaths were required to "place twominas of silver and one mina of gold in the lap of Ninurta residing in Kalhu."[4] The last attested example of this clause dates to 669 BC, the last year of the reign ofKing Esarhaddon (ruled 681 – 669 BC).[4] The temple of Ninurta at Kalhu flourished until the end of the Assyrian Empire,[4] hiring the poor and destitute as employees.[4] The main cultic personnel were ašangû-priest and a chief singer, who were supported by a cook, a steward, and a porter.[4] In the late seventh century BC, the temple staff witnessed legal documents, along with the staff of the temple of Nabu atEzida.[4] The two temples shared aqēpu-official.[4]
Onkudurrus from theKassite Period (c. 1600 –c. 1155 BC), a plough is captioned as a symbol of Ninĝirsu.[1] The plough also appears inNeo-Assyrian art, possibly as a symbol of Ninurta.[1] A perched bird is also used as a symbol of Ninurta during the Neo-Assyrian Period.[9] One speculative hypothesis holds that the winged disc originally symbolized Ninurta during the ninth century BC,[6] but was later transferred to Aššur and the sun-godShamash.[6] This idea is based on some early representations in which the god on the winged disc appears to have the tail of a bird.[6] Most scholars have rejected this suggestion as unfounded.[6] Astronomers of the eighth and seventh centuries BC identified Ninurta (orPabilsaĝ) with the constellationSagittarius.[10] Alternatively, others identified him with the starSirius,[10] which was known in Akkadian asšukūdu, meaning "arrow".[10] The constellation ofCanis Major, of which Sirius is the most visible star, was known asqaštu, meaning "bow", after the bow and arrow Ninurta was believed to carry.[10] In theMUL.APIN Ninurta is consistently identified withMercury,[11][12][13] as it is read: "Mercury whose name is Ninurta travels the (same) path the Moon travels." However, in Babylonian times, Ninurta was associated with the planetSaturn,[14] while Mercury became associated withNabu.
Ninurta was believed to be the son of Enlil.[1] InLugal-e, his mother is identified as the goddessNinmah, whom he renamesNinhursag,[15] but, inAngim dimma, his mother is instead the goddessNinlil.[16] Under the nameNinurta, his wife is usually the goddessGula,[1] but, as Ninĝirsu, his wife is the goddessBau.[1] Gula was the goddess of healing and medicine[17] and she was sometimes alternately said to be the wife of the godPabilsaĝ or the minor vegetation godAbu.[17] Bau was worshipped "almost exclusively in Lagash"[18] and was sometimes alternately identified as the wife of the godZababa.[18] She and Ninĝirsu were believed to have two sons: the gods Ig-alima and Šul-šagana.[18] Bau also had seven daughters, but Ninĝirsu was not claimed to be their father.[18] As the son of Enlil, Ninurta's siblings include:Nanna,Nergal,Ninazu,[19][20]Enbilulu,[21] and sometimesInanna.[22][23]
Second only to the goddessInanna, Ninurta probably appears in more myths than any other Mesopotamian deity.[24] In the Sumerian poemLugal-e, also known asNinurta's Exploits, a demon known asAsag has been causing sickness and poisoning the rivers.[15] Ninurta confronts Asag, who is protected by an army of stone warriors.[6][4][25] Ninurta slays Asag and his armies.[6][4][25] Then Ninurta organizes the world,[6][4] using the stones from the warriors he has defeated to build the mountains, which he designs so that the streams, lakes and rivers all flow into theTigris andEuphrates rivers, making them useful forirrigation and agriculture.[6][15] Ninurta's motherNinmah descends from Heaven to congratulate her son on his victory.[15] Ninurta dedicates the mountain of stone to her and renames herNinhursag, meaning "Lady of the Mountain".[15] Finally, Ninurta returns home to Nippur, where he is celebrated as a hero.[4] This myth combines Ninurta's role as a warrior deity with his role as an agricultural deity.[6] The titleLugal-e means "O king!" and comes from the poem opening phrase in the original Sumerian.[4]Ninurta's Exploits is a modern title assigned to it by scholars.[4] The poem was eventually translated into Akkadian after Sumerian became regarded as too difficult to understand.[4]
A companion work to theLugal-e isAngim dimma, orNinurta's Return to Nippur,[4] which describes Ninurta's return to Nippur after slaying Asag.[4] It contains little narrative and is mostly a praise piece, describing Ninurta in larger-than-life terms and comparing him to the godAn.[26][4]Angim dimma is believed to have originally been written in Sumerian during theThird Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112 –c. 2004 BC) or the earlyOld Babylonian Period (c. 1830 –c. 1531 BC),[27] but the oldest surviving texts of it date to Old Babylonian Period.[27] Numerous later versions of the text have also survived.[27] It was translated into Akkadian during theMiddle Babylonian Period (c. 1600 —c. 1155 BC).[4][27]
In the Old, Middle, and Late Babylonian myth ofAnzû and the Tablet of Destinies, theAnzû is a giant, monstrous bird.[28][29][1] Enlil gives Anzû a position as the guardian of his sanctuary,[28][30] but Anzû betrays Enlil and steals theTablet of Destinies,[31][32][1] a sacred clay tablet belonging to Enlil that grants him his authority,[33] while Enlil is preparing for his bath.[34][32] The rivers dry up and the gods are stripped of their powers.[30] The gods sendAdad,Girra, andShara to defeat the Anzû,[30][34] but all of them fail.[30][34] Finally, the godEa proposes that the gods should send Ninurta, Enlil's son.[30][34] Ninurta confronts the Anzû and shoots it with his arrows,[35][4] but the Tablet of Destinies has the power to reverse time[4] and the Anzû uses this power to make Ninurta's arrows fall apart in midair and revert to their original components.[35][4]
Ninurta calls upon thesouth wind for aid, which rips the Anzû's wings off.[35] The godDagan announces Ninurta's victory in the assembly of the gods[34] and, as a reward, Ninurta is granted a prominent seat on the council.[34][30][10] Enlil sends the messenger godBirdu to request Ninurta to return the Tablet of Destinies.[36] Ninurta's reply to Birdu is fragmentary, but it is possible he may initially refuse to return the Tablet.[37] In the end, however, Ninurta does return the Tablet of Destinies to his father.[30][38][1][4] This story was particularly popular among scholars of the Assyrian royal court.[4]
The myth ofNinurta and the Turtle, recorded in UET 6/1 2, is a fragment of what was originally a much longer literary composition.[39] In it, after defeating the Anzû, Ninurta is honored byEnki inEridu.[39] Enki senses his thoughts and creates a giant turtle, which he releases behind Ninurta and which bites the hero's ankle.[39][40] As they struggle, the turtle digs a pit with its claws, which both of them fall into.[39][40] Enki gloats over Ninurta's defeat.[39][40] The end of the story is missing;[41] the last legible portion of the account is a lamentation from Ninurta's mother Ninmah, who seems to be considering finding a substitute for her son.[39] According to Charles Penglase, in this account, Enki is clearly intended as the hero and his successful foiling of Ninurta's plot to seize power for himself is intended as a demonstration of Enki's supreme wisdom and cunning.[39]
InNinurta's Journey to Eridu, Ninurta leaves theEkur temple in Nippur and travels to theAbzu inEridu, led by an unnamed guide.[42] In Eridu, Ninurta sits in assembly with the godsAn andEnki[34] and Enki gives him theme for life.[43] The poem ends with Ninurta returning to Nippur.[43] The account probably deals with a journey in which Ninurta's cult statue was transported from one city to another and the "guide" is the person carrying the cult statue.[34] The story closely resembles the other Sumerian myth ofInanna and Enki, in which the goddess Inanna journeys to Eridu and receives themes from Enki.[8] In a poem known as the "SumerianGeorgica", written sometime between 1700 and 1500 BC, Ninurta delivers detailed advice on agricultural matters,[1][44] including how to plant, tend, and harvest crops, how to prepare fields for planting, and even how to drive birds away from the crops.[1] The poem covers nearly every aspect of farm life throughout the course of the year.[1]
The myth of theSlain Heroes is alluded to in many texts, but is never preserved in full.[1] In this myth, Ninurta must fight a variety of opponents.[45] Black and Green describe these opponents as "bizarre minor deities";[2] they include thesix-headed Wild Ram, thePalm Tree King, theseven-headed serpent and theKulianna the Mermaid (or "fish-woman").[10] Some of these foes are inanimate objects, such as theMagillum Boat, which carries the souls of the dead to the Underworld, and thestrong copper, which represents a metal that was conceived as precious.[2] This story of successive trials and victories may have been the source for the Greek legend of theTwelve Labors of Heracles.[10]
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In the late seventh century BC, Kalhu was captured by foreign invaders.[4] Despite this, Ninurta was never completely forgotten.[4] Many scholars agree that Ninurta was probably the inspiration for the biblical figureNimrod, mentioned inGenesis 10:8–12 as a "mighty hunter".[46][44][47][48] Though it is still not entirely clear how the nameNinurta becameNimrod in Hebrew,[44] the two figures bear mostly the same functions and attributes[49] andNinurta is currently regarded as the most plausible etymology for Nimrod's name.[44][4] Eventually, the ruins of the city of Kalhu itself became known in Arabic asNamrūd because of its association with Ninurta.[4]
Later in theOld Testament, in both2 Kings 19:37 andIsaiah 37:38,King Sennacherib of Assyria is reported to have been murdered by his sonsAdrammelech andSharezer in the temple of "Nisroch",[48][4][6][10][47] which is most likely a scribal error for "Nimrod".[4][6][10][47] This hypothetical error would result from theHebrew letter מ (mem) being replacing with ס (samekh) and the letter ד (dalet) being replaced with ך (kaf).[4][10] Due to the obvious visual similarities of the letters involved and the fact that no Assyrian deity by the name of "Nisroch" has ever been attested, most scholars consider this error to be the most likely explanation for the name.[4][10][47][50] If "Nisroch" is Ninurta, this would make Ninurta's temple at Kalhu the most likely location of Sennacherib's murder.[50] Other scholars have attempted to identify Nisroch asNusku, the Assyrian god of fire.[48] Hans Wildberger rejects all suggested identifications as linguistically implausible.[48]
Although the Book of Genesis itself portrays Nimrod positively as the first king after theFlood of Noah and a builder of cities,[51] the GreekSeptuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible refers to him as agiant[51] and mistranslates the Hebrew words meaning "beforeYahweh" as "in opposition against God."[51] Because of this, Nimrod became envisioned as the archetypalidolator.[51] Early works of Jewishmidrash, described by the first-century AD philosopherPhilo in hisQuaestiones, portrayed Nimrod as the instigator of the building of theTower of Babel, who persecuted the JewishpatriarchAbraham for refusing to participate in the project.[51]Saint Augustine of Hippo refers to Nimrod in his bookThe City of God as "a deceiver, oppressor and destroyer of earth-born creatures."[51]
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In the sixteenth century, Nisroch became seen as ademon. The DutchdemonologistJohann Weyer listed Nisroch in hisPseudomonarchia Daemonum (1577) as the "chief cook" ofHell.[52] Nisroch appears in Book VI ofJohn Milton's epic poemParadise Lost (first published in 1667) as one ofSatan's demons.[53][54] Nisroch, who is described as frowning and wearing beaten armor,[53] calls into question Satan's argument that the fight between the angels and demons is equal, objecting that they, as demons, can feel pain, which will break their morale.[53] According to Milton scholar Roy Flannagan, Milton may have chosen to portray Nisroch as timid because he had consulted the Hebrew dictionary of C. Stephanus, which defined the name "Nisroch" as "Flight" or "Delicate Temptation".[53]
In the 1840s, the British archaeologistAusten Henry Layard uncovered numerous stone carvings of winged,eagle-headed genii at Kalhu.[4][6] Remembering the Biblical story of Sennacherib's murder, Layard mistakenly identified these figures as "Nisrochs".[4][6] Such carvings continued to be known as "Nisrochs" in popular literature throughout the remaining portion of the nineteenth century.[4][6] InEdith Nesbit's classic 1906 children's novelThe Story of the Amulet, the child protagonists summon an eagle-headed "Nisroch" to guide them.[4] Nisroch opens a portal and advises them, "Walk forward without fear" and asks, "Is there aught else that the Servant of the great Name can do for those who speak that name?"[4] Some modern works on art history still repeat the old misidentification,[6] but Near Eastern scholars now generally refer to the "Nisroch" figure as a "griffin-demon".[6]
In 2016, during its brief conquest of the region, theIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) demolished Ashurnasirpal II's ziggurat of Ninurta at Kalhu.[7] This act was in line with ISIL's longstanding policy of destroying any ancient ruins which it deemed incompatible with its militant interpretation of Islam.[7] According to a statement from theAmerican Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR)'s Cultural Heritage Initiatives, ISIL may have destroyed the temple to use its destruction for future propaganda[7] and to demoralize the local population.[7]
In March 2020, archaeologists announced the discovery of a 5,000-year-old cultic area filled with more than 300 broken ceremonial ceramic cups, bowls, jars, animal bones and ritual processions dedicated to Ningirsu at the site ofGirsu. One of the remains was a duck-shaped bronze figurine with eyes made from bark which is thought to be dedicated toNanshe.[55][56]
In February 2023, theE-ninnu temple (Temple of the White Thunderbird), the primary sanctuary of Ningirsu was identified during the excavations led byBritish Museum andGetty Museum archaeologists at the site ofGirsu.[57]
| Primordial beings | _-_EnKi_(Sumerian).jpg) | |
|---|---|---|
| Primary deities | ||
| Other major deities | ||
| Minor deities | ||
| Demons, spirits, and monsters | ||
| Mortal heroes | ||
