Existential nihilism asserts that life is inherently meaningless and lacks a higher purpose. By suggesting that all individual and societal achievements are ultimately pointless, it can lead toindifference,lack of motivation, andexistential crises. In response, some philosophers propose detachment from worldly concerns, while others seek to discover or create values.Moral nihilism, a related view, denies the objective existence of morality, arguing that moral evaluations and practices rest on misguided assumptions without any foundation in externalreality.
In epistemology or the theory of knowledge, nihilism challenges knowledge andtruth. According torelativism, knowledge, truth, ormeaning are relative to theperspectives of specific individuals or cultural contexts. This implies that there is no independent framework to assess which opinion is ultimately correct.Skeptical interpretations go further by denying the existence of knowledge or truth altogether. In metaphysics,one form of nihilism states that the universe could have been empty without any objects. This view holds that there is no fundamental reason forwhy something exists rather than nothing.Mereological nihilism asserts that there are only simple objects, likeelementary particles, but no composite objects, like tables. Cosmological nihilism is the view that reality isunintelligible and indifferent to human understanding. Other nihilist positions include political, semantic, logical, andtherapeutic nihilism.
Some aspects of nihilism have their roots inancient philosophy in the form of challenges to established beliefs, values, and practices. However, nihilism is primarily associated with modernity, emerging in the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly in Germany and Russia through the works ofFriedrich Heinrich Jacobi andIvan Turgenev. It took center stage in the thought ofFriedrich Nietzsche, who understood nihilism as a pervasive cultural trend in which people lose the values and ideals guiding their lives as a result ofsecularization. In the 20th century, nihilist themes were explored byDadaism,existentialism, andpostmodern philosophy.
Nihilism is a family of views that reject or deny certain aspects ofexistence.[2] Different forms of nihilism deny different features of reality. For example,existential nihilism denies that life hasa higher meaning, andmoral nihilism rejects the existence ofmoral phenomena. Similarly, epistemological nihilism questions the possibility of objectiveknowledge, while political nihilism advocates the destruction of establishedpolitical institutions.[1] The precise definition of nihilism is disputed, and many other definitions and types of nihilism have been proposed, covering a wide range of topics studied by different branches of philosophy, such asethics,value theory,epistemology, andmetaphysics.[3]
In addition to philosophical theories, nihilism can also refer to a broader cultural phenomenon or historical movement. In this context, it is primarily associated withmodernity in theWestern world, characterized by deep skepticism toward established norms and values alongside indifference,despair, and a lack of purpose.[4] Outside the academic discourse, the termnihilism is used more loosely in everyday language to describe negative, destructive, orantisocial attitudes, expressing that someone fails to care about a particular issue. For instance,conservatives may be labeled as nihilistic for not valuing progress, whileprogressives may be described as such for disregarding established norms.[5]
Nihilism is closely associated with other disillusioned attitudes toward the world, likepessimism,absurdism,existentialism,cynicism, andapathy. Although the meanings of these terms overlap, they have distinct connotations and do not necessarily imply one another.[7] Pessimism contrasts withoptimism as a negative outlook focused on bad outcomes and characterized byhopelessness. A key difference to nihilism, according to one interpretation, is that pessimists see the world as inherently bad, whereas nihilists deny that it has any positive or negative meaning.[8] Absurdism argues that the world is not just meaningless, as existential nihilism asserts, but also absurd. It examines the absurdity arising from paradoxical attempts to find meaning in an inherently meaningless universe.[9] Existentialism is a philosophical tradition that addresses absurdist and nihilist views while exploring thehuman condition through themes likeanxiety, death, freedom, andauthenticity.[10] Cynicism is a distrustful attitude toward the motives of other people or society in general.[11] Apathy is astate of mind in which a person does not care about things, characterized by indifference and a lack of desires and emotions.[12]
The wordnihilism is a combination of theLatin termnihil, meaning'nothing', and thesuffix-ism, indicating anideology. Its literal meaning is'ideology of nothing' or'ideology of negation', reflected in terms likeannihilate andnihility.[13] The word emerged in 18th-century Germany, first as a literary term and later as a philosophical notion, whichFriedrich Heinrich Jacobi conceptualized to criticize philosophical thought that rejects meaning or existence.[14] Its first recorded use in English dates to the 1810s.[15] The term became popular in 19th-century Russia throughIvan Turgenev's novelFathers and Sons and theRussian nihilist movement. Interest in it increased more broadly in the 20th century in response toFriedrich Nietzsche's works, while its meaning expanded to cover a wider range of philosophical and cultural phenomena.[16]
Existential nihilism asserts that life is meaningless. It is not limited to the idea that some people fail to find meaning in their lives but makes the broader claim that human existence in general or the world as a whole lacks a higher purpose. This view suggests that living a genuinely meaningful life is impossible, that there is no higher reason to continue living, and that all efforts, achievements, happiness, and suffering are ultimately pointless.[19]
Existential nihilism has diverse practical implications since people usually act with a purpose in mind, sometimes with the explicit goal of making their lives meaningful. As a result, the belief that there is no higher meaning or purpose can bring aboutindifference, alack of motivation, andanxiety. In extreme cases, this can result indepression and despair or trigger anexistential crisis.[20][b] Some philosophers, such asMartin Heidegger, highlight the connection toboredom, arguing that the lack of engagement and goals experienced in thismood makes life appear pointless.[22]
Considering the problem of existential nihilism,Jean Paul Sartre proposed that people can make their lives meaningful by inventing themselves and their values.[23]
Diverse possible reactions to existential nihilism have been proposed.[24] Inspired byIndian philosophy,Arthur Schopenhauer suggested apessimistic andascetic response, advocating detachment from the world byrenouncing desires and stopping to affirm life.[25]Friedrich Nietzsche sought to use the disruptive force of nihilism tore-interpret or re-evaluate all established ideals and values in an attempt to overcome nihilism and replace it with anaffirmative attitude toward life.[26][c]Jean-Paul Sartre suggested that people can create their own values through the free choices they make, despite the cosmic lack of meaning. After considering the possibility of committing suicide,Albert Camus argued instead for a defiant attitude in which individuals rebel against meaninglessness.[28] Other responses include a destructive attitude aiming to violently tear down political authorities and social institutions, attempts to undermine nihilism by identifying genuine sources of meaning, and a passiveresignation or quiet acceptance.[29]
Arguments for and against existential nihilism are discussed in the academic discourse. Arguments from acosmological perspective assert that human existence is a minor and insignificant aspect of theuniverse as a whole, which is indifferent to human concerns and aspirations. This outlook aligns with anatheistic view, stating that, without a God, there is no source of higher values that transcend the natural world. Another viewpoint highlights the pervasiveness of senseless suffering and violence while emphasizing the fleeting nature of happiness. Some theorists link this view to human mortality, suggesting that the inevitability ofdeath renders all human accomplishments transient and ultimately futile.[30] A different perspective from biology argues that life is driven by blindnatural selection on a large scale and the satisfaction of innateneeds on an individual scale, neither of which aims at a higher purpose.[31] Subjectivists, by contrast, focus on thesubjective nature of all value experiences, asserting that they lack any objective ground.[32]
Opponents of existential nihilism have responded with counterarguments to these statements. For example, some reject the pessimistic outlook that life is primarily characterized by suffering, violence, and death, claiming instead that these negative phenomena are counterbalanced by positive experiences such as happiness and love.[33] Many non-nihilistic theories of the meaning of life are examined in the academic discourse.Supernaturalistic views focus on God or the soul as sources of meaning.Naturalistic views, by contrast, assert that subjective or objective values are inherent in the physical world. They include the discussion of fields where humans actively find meaning, such as exercisingfreedom, committing oneself to a cause, pursuingaltruism, and engaging in positivesocial relationships.[34]
Unlike existential nihilism, moral nihilism focuses specifically on moral phenomena rather than a higher meaning or purpose. In its broadest form, it is themetaethical view that there are no moral facts. Also calledamoralism anderror theory, it denies the objective existence of morality, arguing that the theories and practices categorized under this label rest on misguided assumptions without any substantial link to reality.[35] On a practical level, some moral nihilists, such as Nietzsche, assert that without moral obligations, anything is permitted, suggesting that people are allowed to act however they want. Other moral nihilists reject this conclusion and argue that the denial of morality affects not only moral obligations, or what people are required to do, but also moral permissions, or what people are allowed to do.[36]Axiological nihilism, a related view, disputes the objective existence of values in general. This rejection is not limited to moral values and also concerns other types, like aesthetic and religious values.[37]
One argument for moral nihilism suggests that moral properties do not exist because of their odd nature, prescribing what to do rather than describing facts, such as shape and size. Science-based versions of this view hold that scientific inquiry does not reveal objective moral facts or that humans lack asource of moral knowledge. A related argument for moral nihilism focuses on the conventional aspects of moral evaluations and the difficulties in resolving moral disagreements.[38] Another line of thought emphasizes theevolutionary origin of morality, viewing it as a mere product of natural selection without a deeper metaphysical foundation.[39]
Moral realists have raised objections to moral nihilism. Naturalists argue that moral facts belong to the natural world and can be empirically observed.Non-naturalists propose that moral phenomena are different from natural phenomena, but are real nonetheless.[40]Common-sense philosophers assert that moral beliefs are deeply ingrained in practical experience and everyday reasoning, making the wholesale denial of moral facts implausible. A similar objection asserts that moral nihilism is incoherent and rests on a misunderstanding of moral language. Some critics focus on negative practical consequences rather than truth, suggesting that moral nihilism erodes social trust and leads to antisocial conduct.[41]
Some philosophers use the termmoral nihilism in a more restricted sense that does not imply a rejection of all forms of morality. In one alternative sense, moral nihilism is the same as moral subjectivism, arguing that moral evaluations are purely subjective and lack rational objective justification. As a result, moral judgments are seen asexpressions of arbitrary personal preferences, making moral disagreements rationally unresolvable.[42] In another sense, moral nihilism refers toethical egoism, the theory that morality is determined by self-interest. This view denies that thewell-being of others has moral implications unless it has external consequences for one's own well-being.[43]
Epistemological or epistemic nihilism is a family of views that challenge the existence or universal nature of knowledge. Some versions embrace relativism, denying thatobjectivity is possible. For example,truth-relativism asserts thattruth is relative to theperspectives of specific individuals, groups, historical epochs, or cultural contexts.[d] According to this view, statements like "the sun rises in the east" and "killing is wrong" are true in some perspectives and false in others. This theory not only claims that different people have different opinions but additionally asserts that no independent framework exists to assess which opinion is ultimately correct. As a result, there is no absolute truth on which observers from different perspectives can agree.[45]
A related form of relativistic nihilism focuses onmeaning rather than truth. It argues that different people rely on incompatibleconceptual schemes[e] to make sense of the world. In the absence of a universal framework, genuine communication andshared understanding are deemed impossible since each viewpoint has its own interpretation of reality. Without a common ground, theseincommensurable belief systems are arbitrary constructions, limiting reason to operations within a specific system without the ability to reconcile them.[47]
Proponents of relativism emphasize the diversity of human viewpoints and the frequent inability to resolvedisagreements and reach a shared understanding.[49] Another argument asserts that theories are usuallyunderdetermined by the data supporting them. As a result, there are different equally valid interpretations without an objective standard to resolve their differences.[50] An influential criticism argues that relativismundermines itself: if all truths are relative to a viewpoint, then relativism itself is only true for some viewpoints and false for others.[51] Another objection is that the absence of absolute epistemic standards may have odd consequences, for example, that people should not argue if they disagree or that they should generally suspend their judgments.[52]
Nietzsche was an influential proponent of relativistic nihilism. He saw belief systems as an expression of thewill to power, arguing that their goal is to assert dominance rather than represent reality.[53] Inpostmodern philosophy, epistemological nihilism is associated withantifoundationalism, arguing that there is no ultimate rational ground of knowledge or action. It challenges universal frameworks, termedgrand metanarratives, that claim to provide such a ground.[54]
While relativist versions of epistemological nihilism allow that knowledge exists relative to a perspective, skeptic versions deny the existence of knowledge in general.[f] Also calledradical skepticism, this view argues that there is no foundation or justification of knowledge claims. Unlike more moderate forms of skepticism, it questions even the most reasonable knowledge claims grounded in basic common sense.[56] A closely related form of epistemological nihilism, sometimes calledalethiological nihilism, centers on truth rather than knowledge, stating that truth does not exist.[57]
One argument in favor of radical skepticism asserts that absolute certainty is required for knowledge. It attempts to show thatdoubt can never be fully expelled.[58] For example, thedream argument, suggested by philosophers such asRené Descartes, points out that, whiledreaming, people usually cannot distinguish between dream and reality. Based on this observation, it argues that there is no knowledge since an individual can never be certain that they are not currently dreaming.[59] A related approach, inspired byRoderick Chisholm, asserts thata criterion or a standard of evaluation is required to judge what counts as knowledge. It holds that knowledge is impossible because people cannot have this criterion without prior knowledge, meaning that knowledge and its criterion cannot be established independently, as each relies on the other, similar to thechicken-or-the-egg problem.[60][g]Despite these arguments, radical skepticism is a rare position, accepted only by few philosophers and challenged by many criticisms. Its main influence stems from attempts by non-skeptical philosophers to prove that their theories overcome the challenge of skepticism.[62] Some objections state that radical skepticism is incoherent or self-refuting. For example, if there is no knowledge then skeptics cannot know that there is no knowledge, making it questionable why anyone should believe their theories.[63] Another counterargument is that common sense gives stronger support for the existence of knowledge than the abstract arguments used to defend skepticism.[64]
Epistemological nihilism can lead to other forms of nihilism. For instance, the inability to discern the meaning of life can lead to the conclusion that there is no such meaning, resulting in existential nihilism.[65]Moral skepticism, the view that there is no moral knowledge, can have a similar effect: the incapacity to distinguish right from wrong behavior can lead to the rejection of moral facts. Some theorists associate epistemological nihilism primarily with moral skepticism.[66]
Metaphysical or ontological nihilism encompasses views about the fundamental nature ofreality. One version addresses the question ofwhy there is anything at all. It suggests that, at least in principle, an empty world is possible. While this view recognises that the world containsconcrete objects, it argues that their existence is not inevitable, because there could have been nothing. In such a scenario, the universe would be entirely empty, without any people, animals, planets, and no other forms of matter or energy.[67]
The subtraction argument proposes a procedure to support this view. It states that the world does not depend on any particular concrete object. For example, the world could still exist if a specific rock was removed. The argument concludes that an empty world is possible since it is the result of continuously reapplying this idea, subtracting objects at each step until an empty universe remains.[68][h] Opponents of metaphysical nihilism assert that an empty world is impossible, meaning that something must exist. A theologically inspired version asserts that God is a necessary object that must be present even if nothing else is. Another version accepts that any individual concrete object can be removed, but not all at once. It asserts that abstract objects, such as natural numbers, have necessary existence and that they require the existence of at least some concrete objects without depending on any specific object in particular.[70]
A more radical and controversial form of metaphysical nihilism denies the actual existence of objects. It states that there is no world, arguing that the experience of the universe is a mere illusion without an underlying reality. As a result, nothing at all is real. This view is sometimes interpreted asa form of solipsism, proposing that onlythe self exists and that the external world is merely an idea held by the self without a substantial reality.[71]
Mereological or compositional nihilism is the view that complex or composite objects do not exist. Composite objects are objects made up ofproper parts. For example, a house is a composite object made up of parts like walls, windows, and doors. Each of these parts is itself a composite object made up of smaller parts, such as molecules and atoms. Mereological nihilists argue that only noncomposite or simple objects exist, such aselementary particles. As a result, composite objects are understood as mere collections of simple objects. According to this view, there are no houses or tables; there are only elementary particles arranged house-wise or table-wise.[72]
Proponents of mereological nihilism highlight the parsimony andsimplicity of a minimalontology that excludes everything except simple objects, citing metaphysical principles likeOckham's Razor in its favor.[73] Another supporting argument suggests that mereological nihilism avoids certain metaphysical paradoxes associated with the relation between parts and wholes, like theShip of Theseus.[74][i] Opponents of mereological nihilism highlight the counterintuitive consequences of denying the existence of ordinary objects, contradictingcommon sense.[76] Other criticisms assert that mereological nihilism is unable to provide a coherent framework for how to understand collections of elementary particles or fails to explain phenomena likeemergent properties.[77]
Cosmic or cosmological nihilism is the view that reality isunintelligible and lacks inherent meaning. Closely related to epistemological and existential nihilism, it asserts that the world is blank, featureless, or chaotic, making it indifferent to human attempts to understand it. Cosmic nihilists often emphasize the vastness of the universe, arguing that it shows the insignificance of humans and their endeavors.[78]
A broad form of cosmic nihilism states that reality as a whole is unintelligible. According to this view, the chaotic nature of the world makes it impossible to comprehend the universe at any level or find meaningful patterns in it, leading to alienation as human understanding fails to grasp reality.[79] For example,Max Stirner characterized the world as a "metaphysical chaos" without "a comprehensive structure of objective meanings".[80] In response to arguments stating that it is possible in certain cases to discern patterns and predict outcomes, some cosmic nihilists have proposed more narrow versions. One version acknowledges that humans can understand some aspects of reality, for example, through rigorous scientific study. Nonetheless, this view maintains that the universe remains impenetrable to comprehension and indifferent to human aspirations on other levels, lacking intelligible structures that correspond to objective values, moral principles, and a higher purpose.[79]
Dadaism expresses nihilistic themes in art by challenging artistic standards, for example, by presentingFountain, a readymade urinal, at a 1917 art exhibition.[81]Edvard Munch's 1893 paintingThe Scream is sometimes associated with nihilism due to its theme ofexistential terror.[82]
In addition to the main nihilistic theories discussed in ethics, value theory, epistemology, and metaphysics, nihilism is also examined in other areas. Discussions include fields such asliterature,art, culture, and politics.[83] Various literary works portray characters or attitudes that reject established norms, exhibit disillusionment with life, or struggle with existential despair. Bazarov, the protagonist ofIvan Turgenev's novelFathers and Sons, is an early and influential example. Driven by a deep distrust of established authorities, Bazarov follows a cold scientific rationalism. He openly expresses his hate toward conventional beliefs, societal norms, andsentimentality, aiming to dismantle them without a vision of what should replace them.[84] In response to Turgenev's novel,Nikolay Chernyshevsky'sWhat Is to Be Done? explored nihilism from the perspective ofrational egoism.[85] Many ofFyodor Dostoevsky's works explore the problem of nihilism, particularly the idea that without God, there is no moral basis for right or wrong.[86] For example, his novelThe Brothers Karamazov examines the tensions between faith, free will, and nihilism through the perspectives of the protagonists.[87] Nothingness is a central concern for many characters in the works ofSamuel Beckett, either as the object of desire or fear.[88] Nihilist themes are also present in the literary works ofFranz Kafka,Jean-Paul Sartre, andAlbert Camus.[89]
In the field oflaw,legal nihilists assert that laws lack an inherent meaning or a moral foundation, viewing them as unjust or arbitrary constructs used to maintain control and exercisepower.[96] Religious or theological nihilism is associated withatheism and denies theexistence of God. Some theorists identify this view as the root of other nihilist outlooks, such as existential and moral nihilism.[97]
Therapeutic or medical nihilism is the position thatmedical interventions are largely ineffective. Against the advances ofmodern medicine, it argues that themethodology ofmedical research is fundamentally flawed and further distorted by financial incentives, resulting in a systematic overestimation of the benefits of treatments.[101]
Political nihilism is a negative outlook on existing political and social structures, similar toanarchism. It seeks to uphold individual freedom against oppressive governmental controls and societal norms. Its radical and nihilistic tendencies are expressed in the revolutionary aim to dismantle these established forms of order. It targetspolitical institutions, and the traditional beliefs and social practices supporting them, without offering new systems to take their place.[102][j]
Political nihilism is mainly linked to theRussian nihilist movement of the late 19th century. It emerged as a reaction to the rigid social structures andauthoritarian rule inTsarist Russia. In their rejection of established institutions and norms, Russian nihilists resorted to extreme means to promote a radical socialrevolution, leading to forms of violence andterrorism, includingassassinations andarson. Some of the revolutionaries saw Turgenev's character Bazarov as their inspiration and role model.[105]
Negative attitudes toward objective knowledge and the world are also found inancient Indian philosophy. However, it is controversial to what extent they constitute forms of nihilism in a strict sense, and some interpreters limit nihilism to the Western tradition.[111] In the 6th century BCE, the school ofAjñana developed a radical skepticism, questioning the possibility and usefulness of knowledge.[112]Buddhist thought, starting in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, focuses on the pervasiveness ofsuffering, identifying it as a fundamentalaspect of existence. It teachesrenunciation of worldly desires to achieve liberation from suffering in the state ofnirvana.[113] According to a common interpretation, the school ofMādhyamaka, which emerged in the 2nd century CE, defends metaphysical nihilism, rejecting the existence of an ultimate foundation or absolute reality underlying the multiplicity of experienced phenomena.[114]
In theearly modern period,secularization and theScientific Revolution undermined established religious beliefs and values prevalent in the Western world during themedieval period, preparing the emergence of nihilism.[115]René Descartes (1596–1650) considered an extreme form of epistemological nihilism in his quest for absolute certainty. He suggested that humans cannot trust even their most fundamental beliefs unless they can rule out that a malevolent God-like being is constantly deceiving them.[116]Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) drew a sharp distinction betweenappearances andthings underlying those appearances. By limiting knowledge to the sphere of appearances, he prepared a type of existential nihilism, making the deeper meaning of things in themselves inaccessible.[117] In criticizing therationalism of theKantian philosopherJohann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814),Friedrich Jacobi (1743–1819) coined the philosophical concept of nihilism to describe philosophical thought that leads to the denial of existence and meaning.[118]
In 19th-century Russia,Ivan Turgenev was responsible for popularizing the termnihilism.[119]
In Russia, the termnihilism gained popularity throughIvan Turgenev's (1818–1883) portrayal of the nihilist character Bazarov in his novelFathers and Sons.[119] Starting in the second half of the 19th century, theRussian nihilist movement was a form of political nihilism, characterized by a radical rejection of traditional social, political, and aesthetic norms.[120] Meanwhile in Western Europe, the nihilisticegoism ofMax Stirner (1806–1856) reduced other people to their usefulness without respect for theirpersonhood. Stirner also formulated a cosmic nihilism that sees the universe as an unintelligible, metaphysical chaos.[121]Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) explored different lifestyles or "spheres of existence" through which people seek meaning in their lives. He warned against an aesthetic lifestyle of pursuing sensory pleasures without ulterior goals, arguing that it leads to a nihilistic outlook marked by meaninglessness. Instead, he recommended aleap of faith that trusts in God as a higher source of meaning.[122]
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) developed apessimistic philosophy, characterizing the world as a place of suffering, brought into being by a blind, irrationalwill.[123] Influenced by Schopenhauer, the problem of nihilism took center stage in the thought ofFriedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). He understood it as a broad cultural phenomenon in which people lose the values and ideals guiding their lives. He explored the causes and consequences of this shift in evaluative outlook, examining reactions to it and ways of overcoming it.[124] According to Nietzsche, nihilism often manifests in a distorted form as passive nihilism, masking its life-denying nature behind religious dogmas, conventional morality, and societal norms. Against this tendency, Nietzsche recommended active nihilism, which openly acknowledges the lack of meaning and uses its negative force to dismantle established values.[l] He saw this as a transitional phase to overcome nihilism in general, leading to a vitalaffirmation of life through arevaluation of all values.[126]
Martin Heidegger conceived of nihilism as a fundamental historical movement in Western thought.[127]
Many subsequent developments in the 20th-century history of nihilism were responses to Nietzsche's philosophy.[128]Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) agreed with Nietzsche's description of the pervasive and corrosive nature of nihilism, seeing it as a fundamental historical movement in Western thought reaching back to the ancient period. Interpreting Nietzsche's concept of thewill to power andmodern technological developments, Heidegger came to the conclusion that Nietzsche's attempt to overcome nihilism fails and leads to an even more complete nihilism. As an alternative, Heidegger turned to earlyPresocratic philosophy to recover a non-nihilistic understanding of being.[127]
Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) proposed a view aligned with cosmic nihilism, characterizing humanity as an accidental and insignificant byproduct of cosmic forces that are alien and indifferent to human concerns.[129] Against the backdrop ofWorld War I,Dadaists expressed aspects of nihilism through art, seeking to undermine established norms and values while embracingnonsense and absurdity.[130] The question of nihilism and its denial of the meaning of life played a central role forexistentialist philosophers.[131]Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) asserted that humans haveno inborn essence defining who they are or what their purpose is. He argued that they can overcome this lack of predefined meaning throughfreedom, proposing that people make their lives meaningful by inventing themselves and their values.[23] In hisabsurdist philosophy,Albert Camus (1913–1960) explored the psychological paradox that arises from the inherent drive to seek meaning in an objectively meaningless world. He termed this condition "the absurd" and advocated for a defiant stance or rebellion against the lack of meaning.[132]
In the second half of the 20th century, certain aspects of nihilism emerged inpostmodern philosophy, often in response to Nietzsche and Heidegger.[133]Jacques Derrida's (1930–2004) philosophy ofdeconstruction challenged the existence of absolute truth and stable meaning. Derrida aimed to expose the hidden assumptions and biases on which this viewpoint rests.[134]Jean-François Lyotard (1924–1998) exploredantifoundationalism, rejecting the existence of universal frameworks of understanding, termedmetanarratives. He aimed to undermine their validity as standards of truth claims, proposing instead that they are merely differentlanguage games people play without a clear hierarchy prioritizing one language game over the others.[135] Similarly,Richard Rorty (1931–2007) dismissed the notion of objective truths, suggesting that people rely on their own judgment and creativity instead of privileging established perspectives, like the scientific worldview.[136] Against Nietzsche's and Heidegger's attempts to overcome nihilism,Gianni Vattimo (1936–2023) embraced it, viewing nihilism as the only viable alternative in thepostmodern era.[137]
^Existential crises are inner conflicts in which individuals struggle to find meaning in their lives. Some authors suggest that nihilistic beliefs can trigger existential crises. Others propose nihilism as one way to resolve them by learning to accept meaninglessness rather than finding a source of meaning.[21]
^In this context, Nietzsche contrasted passive with active nihilism. Passive nihilism is a form of resignation characterized by pessimism, hopelessness, and disengagement while refusing to acknowledge the absence of meaning. Active nihilism openly accepts meaninglessness and uses its negativity as a force to destroy established values and ideologies.[27]
^Related forms of epistemological relativism target the standards of knowledge, justification, or rationality.[44]
^A conceptual scheme is a system of categories, concepts, or beliefs through which people organize their ideas, understand their experiences, and interpret reality.[46]
^Some philosophers, such asKaren L. Carr, distinguish epistemological nihilism from skepticism and relativism. According to this interpretation, skepticism and relativism imply uncertainty about the existence of knowledge and objectivity, recommending the suspension of judgment. Epistemological nihilism, by contrast, firmly asserts that knowledge or objectivity do not exist.[55]
^Some forms of the subtraction argument include the assumption that the world is finite to ensure that this endpoint is reached.[69]
^The Ship of Theseus is a thought experiment in which the parts of a ship are gradually replaced until no original part remains. The metaphysical paradox is tied to the question of whether the resulting ship is the same as the original ship. This problem does not arise for mereological nihilism, since it denies the existence of composite objects.[75]
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