 Nahua community inRivas, Nicaragua. | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| 23,000+,[1][2][3] 200,000 (1523)[4] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica | |
 Nicaragua | Estimated20,000[5][6] |
 Costa Rica | ~3000 |
| Languages | |
| Nawat,Nicaraguan Spanish | |
| Religion | |
| PredominantlyRoman Catholic | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Nahuas,Pipil people,Mexica | |
TheNicarao are anindigenousNahua people living in westernNicaragua and northwesternCosta Rica.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13] They are the southernmost Nahua group located in southernMesoamerica. They spoke theNahuat language before it went extinct after the Spanish conquest of Nicaragua and Costa Rica.[14][15]
The Nicarao are a subgroup of thePipil people, both of which are descended from theToltecs, who migrated fromOasisamerica over the course of several centuries starting about 700 CE, the lateMesoamerican Classic period.[4][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] This branch of the Nahua people originated inChiapas, which was inhabited byNahuat-speaking Toltecs for hundreds of years before they migrated further intoCentral America.[25][14][26][27][28][29][30][31]
Around 1200 CE, a group of Pipils that would eventually become the Nicarao migrated further south and settled in theGran Nicoya region of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, seized most of the fertile lands in the region, and eventually separated and formed their own chiefdoms.[32][33][34][35] The migration of the Nicarao has been linked to the collapse of the important central Mexican cities ofTeotihuacan andTula, as well as theClassic Maya collapse. The Nicarao settled throughout western Nicaragua, inhabitingRivas,Jinotega,Chinandega,Nueva Segovia,Masaya,Carazo,Madriz,Matagalpa,Esteli,Leon,Granada andManagua. In addition the Nicarao controlledTiger Lagoon,Lake Managua,Lake Cocibolca, and the islands ofOmetepe andZapatera.[22][36][37][38][39][40][41][42] LakeOmetepe and Isla Zapatera inLake Nicaragua were also sacred to the Nicarao.
The Nicarao also settled inBagaces, Costa Rica after displacing theHuetar people,Chibchan speakers already living in the region, resulting in tribal warfare between Nahuas and Huetares that lasted until Spanish arrival.[43][44]
The Nicarao referred to western Nicaragua asNicānāhuac, which means "here lies Anahuac" in Nahuat and is a combination of the wordsNican (here),[45] andĀnāhuac, which in turn is a combination of the wordsatl "water" andnahuac, a locative meaning "surrounded". Therefore the literal translation of Nicanahuac is "here surrounded by water".[46][47][48][49][50] This was a geographicalendonym that referred to the large bodies of water that surrounded the land the Nicarao inhabited: thePacific Ocean, the lakes Nicaragua and Managua, and the many rivers andlagoons.[51][52] Similarly, theAztec city ofTenochtitlan was also surrounded by water, which they referred to asCemanahuac.[53][54] This establishes a connection between pre-Columbian Mexico and Nicaragua.
As a Mesoamerican people, the Nicarao shared many blended cultural traits with other indigenous belief systems and maintained the Toltec version of theMesoamerican calendar, similar pottery and effigies, similar organizational treaties, the use ofscreenfold books, the worship of a high god and closely-relatedsky gods,nagual mysticism, the practice of animal andtonal spirituality, and expertise in medical practice.[55][56][57][58][59]
According to tradition, the Nicaraos migrated from their ancestral homeland, which they referred to asNahuatlan, meaning "land of Nahuas" or "place of intelligible speech". After Nahuatlan collapsed, they were commanded byTloquenahuaque to travel south until they found a lake with two volcanoes rising out of the water. After the Nicarao split from the Pipils and migrated further south, they stopped when they reached Lake Nicaragua, the largest lake inCentral America, which contains two volcanoes onOmetepe.[60][61][62][63]
After the Nicarao arrived into what is now western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica, they seized most of the fertile lands in the area through warfare, and displaced many neighboring tribes, most of which were derived from theMuisca, including theCacaoperas, and Huetares, but also Mesoamerican tribes, including theChorotegas, who areOtomanguean.[43][44][64] The Nahua chiefdoms of Kwawkapolkan and Kakawatan sent their armies as far north asCarazo during their wars against the Chorotegas, and as far south as theNicoya Peninsula and southernGuanacaste during their military campaigns against theKingdom of Nicoya and the Huetares.[65][66][67]
Furthermore, the chiefdom ofTekwantepek invadedMatagalpa andBoaco to pillage, enslave, and displace theCacaoperas andMayangnas from their lands. Tekwantepek also performedhuman sacrifice on Cacaopera and Mayangna prisoners of war in addition to selling their women as slaves and prostitutes for 100cacao beans and five cacao beans, respectively.[68][69][70][38][71][42]
Although the Nicarao displaced rival tribes through warfare, they also developed trade relations with smaller tribes, maintaining hegemony over western Nicaragua through military superiority, cultural dominance, their large population, andcommerce.[4] Despite their tribal division, the armies of the Nicarao chiefdoms shared a warrior tradition and shared a pattern of standard military equipment. Nicarao warriors were equipped with long and thick padded cotton armor that extended down to their thighs and knees, protective headgear, medium to large shields, spears,atlatls,bow and arrows, clubs edged with stone blades, knives and daggers with obsidian blades, andmacanas, a wooden sword edged withobsidian blades similar to the Aztecmacuahuitl.[58][72][73] Furthermore, Nicarao troops were rationed cacao, which could be added to water, a policy providing extra sustainability. Cacao water kept warriors vigilant, focused, and energetic due to itscaffeine content, which gave them an advantage in battle.[74][75]
In addition, non-Nahua minorities lived and thrived within several Nahua chiefdoms alongside the Nahua majority, such as the Chibchan-speaking minorities in Kwawkapolkan and Kakawatan, and the Chibcha andOtomanguean-speaking minorities in Masatepek.[76] The military forces of Kwawkapolkan and Kakawatan were also unifying entities under a somewhat diverse population of Nahuas and Chibchas.[77][78] Military service provided social advancement and assimilation, which resulted in Chibchan troops serving alongside their Nahua counterparts in the chiefdoms armed forces to further integrate into Nahua society.[79][80] The Nicarao cultivation ofpotatoes also suggestscultural diffusion from the Chibchans, as the latter introduced potatoes fromSouth America.[81][82] Furthermore, many Chibchan peoples across theIntermediate Area were heavily influenced by the Nicaraos, such as their adoption of the Nahua pantheon, and their ability to speak Nawat, which was documented byConquistadores.[43][44] This shows that despite their tribal division, and being surrounded by peoples of theIsthmo-Colombian Area, the Nicarao shared great cultural, economic, religious, and political influence across southern Mesoamerica and the Isthmo-Colombian regions.
In 1501, afterAhuitzotl,tlahtoāni of Tenochtitlan, sentpochtecas to explore and establish relations with other peoples of Central America, trade relations developed between theMexica and the Nicarao.[83] Commercial exchange between Tenochtitlan and the chiefdoms of Nicanahuac continued to flourish afterMoctezuma II ascended to the throne of Tenochtitlan as Mexica merchants traded and thrived within Nicarao territory.[83]
Although they are Nahuas, they're erroneously known by theexonym "Nicarao", which was not what the Nahuas of Nicaragua called themselves as it was a term imposed on them by the conquistadors, in addition to the fact that the letter "r" does not exist in the Nawat language.[46] They are sometimes referred to asNicanahuacanos (people of Nicanahuac) by Nicaraguan historians.[84][21] The etymology of the term "Nicarao" most likely originated as a shortened andhispanicized form of "Nicānāhuac", the name used by the Nicaraos to refer to western Nicaragua. This is evident in the Spaniards use of the rootNica in "Nicarao" which derives from NahuatlNican.[45][46][21]
Out of all the Central American dialects of Nawat, the dialect spoken by the Nicarao was found to be the most similar to central-MexicanNahuatl.[85] Furthermore, both Salvadoran and Nicaraguan Nawat were found to be closely related to Nawat fromChiapas.[86][87] It is also evident that the Nicarao were able to understand Nahuatl, as the Spaniards were able to communicate with Nicaraos they encountered in Nahuatl through theirTlaxcallan translators. Nahuatl was used as alingua franca at that time because many indigenous groups in Mesoamerica could speak Nahuatl. This culminated an environment where different indigenous groups with unintelligible languages could communicate with each other.
The Nawat language went extinct in Nicaragua in the late 1800s, and was last spoken onOmetepe Island and in the departments ofRivas andMasaya.[88]
According to Spanish conquistadorsGil González Dávila andGonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, who was also a historian, the Nicarao had multiplechiefdoms that were independent from one another.[33][34][89] In addition, although these chiefdoms shared the same language, culture, and ethnicity, they were never unified under a single political entity asKuskatan was in present-dayEl Salvador.
The most powerful Nahua chiefdom was Kwawkapolkan, which means "place of capulín trees" inNawat and was ruled byMacuilmiquiztli.[90] It is a combination of the Nawat wordsKwawit (tree),[91][92]kapolin (capulín),[93][94] and-kan (a locative meaning "place of"). Kwawkapolkan was also the southernmost Nahua chiefdom that extended fromRivas down toBagaces in centralGuanacaste in Costa Rica. Kwawkapolkan bordered its ally Kakawatan in Rivas, theKingdom of Nicoya which was a powerful Mesoamerican civilization in theNicoya Peninsula, and smallerChibcha tribes in other parts of Rivas as well as theHuetares and Voto people of northern Costa Rica.[43][44]
Kakawatan was another Nahua chiefdom located in what is now the Rivas department of southwestern Nicaragua.[89] The Nahuas of Kakawatan were known askakawatecos, meaning "people of Kakawatan", and in Nawat askakawatekat.[68] The chief of Kakawatan was Wemak, who according to several sources, was Macuilmiquiztli's cousin.[95][96] This could explain the close relations between Kwawkapolkan and Kakawatan. Wemak also had a warrior son named Eskuat, though he wasn't mentioned by Spanish sources again.[89] Before and during spanish contact, Kakawatan and Kwawkapolkan had a military alliance and were in a constant state of war with the Chorotegas, theKingdom of Nicoya, and later fought together against the Spanish.[97][89] The nameKakawatan is a combination of the Nawat wordskakaw (Cacao),[25]at (water), and-tan (locative suffix meaning land/place of).[98] Therefore Kakawatan translates to "land of cacao water", referring to chocolate drinks, one the most important aspects of Nicarao culture.[99][100] This tradition is still practiced in the communities of Rivas among the descendants of the Nahuas both indigenous and mestizos alike.[101]
Masatepek was located in what is nowMasaya in western Nicaragua, and was in close proximity to the chiefdoms of Shilutepek and Tekwantepek. The Nahuas of Masatepek coexisted with theOtomangueans who also inhabited the area. The name Masatepek is a combination of the Nawat wordsMasat (deer),[25] and-tepek (hill). The literal translation of Masatepek is "deer hill".[98] The Nahuas of Masatepek inhabitedNindiri, Niquinohomo, Monimbó, andMasatepe which is named after this chiefdom.[102]
Tekwantepek was a militarily strong chiefdom located in present-dayManagua, and was one of the last chiefdoms to fall to theconquistadors and their central-Mexican allies.[68][103] Tekwantepek had continuous wars against theCacaoperas, and sent their army toMatagalpa andBoaco to pillage, enslave, and displace the Cacaoperas andMayangnas. Tekwantepek also performedhuman sacrifice on Cacaopera and MayangnaPOWs in addition to selling their women as slaves and prostitutes for 100 cacao beans, and 5 cacao beans.[68][104] The etymology is a combination of the Nawat wordstēkwani (jaguar),[25] andtepek (hill),[98] which translates to "jaguar hill" or "hill of jaguars". The city ofTicuantepe in Managua is likely named after this chiefdom.
Shilutepek was located in what is nowCarazo of pacific Nicaragua, and was in close proximity to Masatepek, and Tekwantepek. The Nahuas of Shilutepek fought against the Chorotegas who also inhabited much of the land now part of the Carazo department. The etymology of Shilutepek comes the Nawat wordsShilut (tendermaize), and-tepek (hill),[98] meaning "hill of tender maize". The city ofJinotepe is named after this chiefdom.
Teswatan was located in northwestern Nicaragua, specificallyChinandega.[105][106] Teswatan means "Place ofTezhuate". Fernandez de Oviedo described Teswatan as a chiefdom filled withmaize, in addition to Akatekwtli's son ascending to the throne after his death during Spanish conquest.[107][108]
Chinantan was the northernmost Nicarao chiefdom that bordered theLencas of southwestern Honduras, the pre-Columbian relations between the Lencas and the Nicaraos are unknown. Chinantan was located in Chinandega and had close relations with Teswatlan. Chinantan means "place surrounded by reeds" in Nahuatl. A Nicarao from Chinantan was called aChinantekat meaning "person from Chinantán".[109][110][111]
At the time of Spanish arrival,Gil González Dávila traveled to western Nicaragua with a small army of just over 100 men made up of conquistadors and theirTlaxcalteca allies. They explored the fertile western valleys and were impressed with the Nahua and Oto-manguean civilizations for the vast amounts of food they had in addition to their flourishing markets, permanent temples, and trade network.[89][112][113] Despite the good first impression however, Dávila referred to the Nahuas and Chorotegas aslos rojos ("the reds" inSpanish), and their children asrojitos ("little red kids" in Spanish) which were derogatory terms based on skin color.[89]
Eventually, Dávila met with the most powerful ruler inpre-Columbian Nicaragua namedMacuilmiquiztli, meaning "Five Deaths" in the Nahuatl language, and conversed with him throughTlaxcalan translators.[114][115][116][117] This contact took place inCarazo, where Macuilmiquiztli lead his army in a military campaign against the Chorotegas led byDiriangén.[89] Due to the sudden nature of Spanish contact in addition to the natives curiosity, the war between the Nahuas and Chorotegas came to a halt.[89] Despite meeting Dávila in Carazo, Macuilmiquiztli governed the Nahua chiefdom of Kwawkapolkan, not far from the modern town ofRivas.[118] Macuilmiquiztli initially welcomed the Spanish and their Tlaxcalteca allies, however, Dávila and his army used the opportunity to gather gold andbaptize some of the Nahuas along the way, much to Macuilmiquiztli's disapproval. When Dávila demanded the now skeptical Macuilmiquiztli, as well as chiefs Wemak and Diriangén who were also present, to be baptized, to renounce their pagan beliefs, to hand over the rest of their gold and jewellery, and to bend the knee to the Spanish crown, they refused.[89] Realizing the threat that the Spanish imposed, Macuilmiquiztli, as well as Diriangén, waged war against the Spanish and Tlaxcaltecas which culminated in theBattle of Diriangén, where Nahua and Chorotega warriors together forced Dávila and his men to retreat to Panama.[119][120][121]
This set the stage for theSpanish conquest of Nicaragua in1524 CE, when Nicaragua was invaded on all sides by several Spanish forces, each led by aconquistador. González Dávila was authorized by royal decree to invade from the Caribbean coast of Honduras.Francisco Hernández de Córdoba at the command of the governor ofPanama invaded fromCosta Rica.Pedro de Alvarado at the command ofHernán Cortés, came fromGuatemala throughSan Salvador andHonduras.[122] By 1525 all of the Nahua chiefdoms in western Nicaragua had fallen to the Spanish.
Ultimately the conquest ofNicanahuac was swift due to the tribal divisions within Nicarao society, in stark contrast to theirPipil kin who were unified under theKuskatan confederation, and as a result, lasted much longer against the conquistadors which fell in 1528. After Spanish conquest, Nahua society in western Nicaragua came to a tragic end. The Nicarao suffered a devastating demographic and societal collapse from a combination of disease, war against the Spanish and their Tlaxcalteca allies, and being sold intoslavery.[123][4][124] The remaining Nahuas were subjected to Spanish rule, forcibly baptized to Catholicism, and were hispanicized both culturally and through intermarriage with Spaniards.
Despite the enmity between the Nahuas andChorotegas, Macuilmiquiztli and Diriangén made peace and agreed to team up against the Spanish and Tlaxcaltecas. This formed atriumvirate-style alliance between chiefs Macuilmiquiztli, Diriangén, and Wemak, all of whom fought together against the invaders with the military forces of their chiefdoms.[125][126]
Francisco Hernández de Córdoba fought directly against the alliance, and by 1525 the alliance had completely collapsed. Diriangén escaped the Spanish onslaught and eventually died between 1527-1529, Wemak was captured and executed in 1525 after the last of his Kakawateca forces were annihilated by the conquistadors and Tlaxcaltecas, and the fall of Kwawkapolkan in 1525 finalized their defeat.[127][128]
Macuilmiquiztli and Diriangén remain popular figures in Nicaraguan nationalism and anti-imperialism, and are symbols of Indigenous resistance. In addition, theNational Assembly of Nicaragua declared the two Indigenous leaders as national heroes.[129] Furthermore, their alliance highlights a powerful lesson in teamwork between enemies who united their forces to oppose a much greater threat.
The Nicarao people migrated south fromNorth America and central and southernMexico over the course of several centuries from approximately 700 CE onwards. Around 1200 CE, the Nicarao split from thePipil people and moved into what is nowNicaragua. The beginning of this series of migrations was likely to have been linked to the collapse of the great central-Mexican city ofTeotihuacan, and later with the collapse of theToltec city ofTula.[130] The dating of Nicarao arrival in what is now Nicaragua has also been linked to theClassic Maya collapse, with the cessation of Maya influence in the region, and the rise of cultural traits originating in theValley of Mexico.[131] The Nicarao had a sizeable population concentrated in nucleated villages all over western Nicaragua and what is now northwesternCosta Rica.[132][133] They displaced both the Chorotega and the Cacaopera that had previously settled the region; evidence shows some of their culture was integrated into their own.[118][134] The Nicarao appear to have seized control of the most productive land around the western portions ofLake Nicaragua,Ometepe, and theGulf of Fonseca.[135] The area now covered byRivas Department appears to have been conquered by the Nicarao shortly before the Spanish conquest.[136][56]
A remnantNahuat-speaking population existed as late as the mid-19th century, but the Nicarao as a tribal Confederation are now extinct.[132] Today Nicaragua is estimated to have around 20,000 Nicarao people, though displaced by Spanish conquest. In Costa Rica the Nicarao population ranges from several hundred to 1000 and are primarily located in the Bagaces Canton, with smaller pockets inhabiting other parts ofGuanacaste. Some of their practices and beliefs continue to survive among their descendants within the Nahua communities of Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
At the time of contact with the Spanish, the Nicarao were governed from their capital atQuauhcapolca, near the modern town ofRivas. Other principal settlements includedOmetepe, Asososca Lagoon (Managua), Mistega,Ochomogo, Oxmorio, Papagayo, Tecoatega, Teoca, Totoaca, and Xoxoyota.[137]
Like most other Nahua groups, the Nicarao were agriculturalists, and cultivatedmaize,cacao,cotton,tomatoes,avocados,potatoes,squash,beans, andchili.[138][99][72][100][139][140][141] Modern Nicaraos continue to be mainly farmers and agriculturalists and contribute to the cultivation of countless fruits and crops. In the Masaya department, cocoa production continues to be dominated by the Nicaraos.[36][142]Chocolate was fundamental topre-Columbian Nicarao culture as it was drunk during special ceremonies in addition to cocoa beans being used as their currency.[139] The Nicarao also dined on various meats such asturkey,deer,iguana,mute dogs, andfish from the sea, rivers, lakes and lagoons.[139][143] The Nicarao had elaborate markets and permanent temples indicating some level of expertise in architecture, which have since been completely destroyed by the Spanish.[10][72]
In contrast to their central Mexican counterparts who strictly reserved cotton for high-status members of Aztec society, cotton clothing was an everyday commodity in Greater Nicoyan society for commoners, upper class, and lower class alike.[144][145][146] Nicarao men wore traditional cottonponchos as their daily wear, while the women wore cottonHuipiles.[147][148][149] Furthermore, the Pacific coast of Nicaragua was a cotton-producing power in Mesoamerica due to its rich soil and immense bodies of water, which allowed the Nicaraos to grow excessive amounts of cotton which is a water-intensive crop. This combination of suitable lands with the abundance of water established cotton textiles as a common commodity rather than a luxury exclusive to the elite.[150]
Many of the Nicarao were artisans with expertise in crafts such as pottery and goldsmithing.[151] Tattoo artistry across the face and body was prized among a few Nicaraos, as observed by the Spanish and reflected in effigies and clay artwork they created; this trait was shared by neighboring tribes to the south as well as theMaya people to the north.[151][152][153] Among the Nicarao, highly specialized tattoo artists were experts and lived by their skills.[58] However, the Spanish witnessed only a few tattooed natives in the Nicarao populace, therefore tattooing was not part of Nicarao culture and those who were tattooed were most likely Isthmo-Colombian natives rather than Nahuas. The Nicarao also practiced stonecraft, as evidenced by elaboratepetroglyphs of spirals, murals and spiritual figures carved and painted onto stones inOmetepe; this was shared by theChorotega and other pre-Columbian civilizations in the region.[134]
Spanish chroniclerGonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, writing soon after the conquest, recorded that the Nicarao practisedcranial modification, by binding the heads of young children between two pieces of wood. Archaeologists have unearthedpre-Columbian burials in the former Nicarao region with evidence of both cranial and dental modification.[154] The Nicarao possessed a number of cultural traits in common with North American tribes as well as theToltecs of central Mexico, including an identicalcalendar, the use ofscreenfold books, worship of theGreat Spirit and a Toltec pantheon ofdeities such assky spirits, animal spirits andTonal mythology,Nagual mysticism, and treaties.[155][56][57] They also, in common with their Mexican cousins fromAztec culture, practiced ritual confession, and thevolador (flying men) ritual.[156][157]
Francisco de Bobadilla recorded information on the religion of the Nicarao, which shows clear ties to theAztec pantheon, though his spelling is inconsistent and reflects the Nicarao dialect. Deities worshipped by the Nicarao include Tamagazque (Tlamacazqui, a name forTlaloc),Cipactonal, Oxomogo (Oxomoco), Calchitguegue (possiblyChalchiuhtlicue), Chicociagat (Chicoace Acatl, the calendrical name ofCenteotl), Mixcoa (Mixcoatl), "Bisteot" (god of hunger, a corruption of Apizteot), Chiquinaut or Hecat (ChicnauiEhecatl, the calendrical name ofQuetzalcoatl, Miqtanteot (Mictlantecuhtli). The gods Mazat ("deer") and Toste ("rabbit") were invoked for good luck when hunting these animals. Quiateot ("god of rain") was the son of Omeyateite (Ometecuhtli) and Omeyatecigoat (Omecihuatl).Xipe Totec was probably present, but may not have been as prominent as among theirPipil relatives.
Tamagazque and Cipactonal, along with Oxomogo, Calchitguegue, and Chicociagat, were believed to be responsible for recreating the world after it had been destroyed by a flood, mostly likely a version of the AztecFive Suns myth. Those who died in battle or lived a good life of religious devotion went to the heavens, while those who were wicked or died at home went toMictlan. Children who died young were born again to the same parents.[158]
Despite their massive decrease in population and the loss of their native language in the aftermath of Spanish conquest, the Nicarao, and their culture, are still an integral part of Nicaraguan identity as they formed the ethnic foundation of the country.[4] Most western Nicaraguans have Nahua ancestry, as proven throughDNA analysis.[159][160] Towns, lakes, islands, and volcanoes bear their place names.[161] The etymology of the country's name derives from their native language.[46][162][47][48][49][50]Nicaraguan Spanish has been heavily influenced by their native language.[163][164][165][166][167][168] Nicaraguan cuisine such as thenacatamal andindio viejo both of which originated from the Nicarao have also cemented itself in the Nahua legacy of Nicaragua.[169][170][171][172]
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