New York and New Jersey campaign
Part of theAmerican Revolutionary War
Map of theAmerican Revolutionary War's New York and New Jersey campaign
Date July 1776 – March 1777 Location New York andNew Jersey Result New York: British victory British control of New York City for the rest of the war The city's strategic port and harbor remain in British hands Constant military activity in the surrounding area for the remainder of the war New York City becomes a haven for Loyalists fleeing other areas of the country and resulting in severe overcrowding Thousands of Americans are taken prisoner and die in captivity New Jersey: U.S. victory U.S. retains control ofNew Jersey Continental Army preserved Continental Army adopts aFabian strategy Development ofAmerican military intelligence and espionage
Belligerents
United States	Great Britain  Loyalists Hesse Waldeck
Commanders and leaders
George Washington Charles Lee  John Sullivan Hugh Mercer †	William Howe Henry Clinton Charles Cornwallis Richard Howe Wilhelm von Knyphausen Carl von Donop Johann Rall †
Strength
23,000 soldiers and militia[1]	32,000 soldiers[2]
Casualties and losses
1,500 killed & wounded	3,000 killed & wounded 1,400 captured[3]

TheNew York and New Jersey campaign in 1776 and the winter months of 1777 was a series ofAmerican Revolutionary War battles for control of thePort of New York and the state ofNew Jersey, fought betweenBritish forces underGeneral Sir William Howe and theContinental Army under GeneralGeorge Washington. Howe was successful in driving Washington out ofNew York, but overextended his reach intoNew Jersey, and ended the New York and New Jersey campaign in January 1777 with only a few outposts nearNew York City under British control. The British heldNew York Harbor for the rest of the Revolutionary War, using it as a base for expeditions against other targets.

Landing unopposed onStaten Island on July 3, 1776, Howe had assembled an army that included components that had withdrawn fromBoston in March following theBritish failure to hold that city, combined with additional British troops, andHessian troops hired from severalGerman principalities. Washington's Continental Army includedNew England soldiers and regiments from theThirteen Colonies as far south as theColony of Virginia. Landing onLong Island in August, Howe defeated Washington inthe largest battle of the war in North America, but the Continental Army was able to regroup and make an orderly and covert retreat toManhattan that night under a cover of darkness and fog. Washington suffered a series of further defeats in Manhattan but prevailed in a skirmish at theBattle of Harlem Heights and eventually withdrew his troops successfully toWhite Plains, New York. Howe, meanwhile,returned to Manhattan and captured those forces Washington had left on the island.

Washington and much of his army crossed theHudson River toRockland County and then south into New Jersey, retreated across the state, and then crossed theDelaware River intoPennsylvania. Along the way, his army shrank due to the ending of enlistment periods, desertions, and poor morale. Howe ordered his troops into winter quarters in December, establishing a chain of outposts from New York City toBurlington, New Jersey. Washington, in a tremendous boost to American morale, launched a successfulstrike against the Trenton garrison on the morning of December 26, 1776, prompting Howe to withdraw his chain of outposts back toNew Brunswick and the coast near New York. Washington, in turn, established his winter camp atMorristown. During the following winter months and through the rest of the war, both sidesskirmished frequently around New York City and New Jersey as the British sought forage and provisions.

Britain maintained control of New York City and some of the surrounding territory until the war ended in 1783, using it as a base for operations elsewhere in North America. In 1777, General Howe launcheda campaign to capture the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia, leaving GeneralSir Henry Clinton in command of the New York area, while GeneralJohn Burgoyne ledan attempt to gain control of the Hudson River valley, moving south fromQuebec andbeing defeated at Saratoga.

When theAmerican Revolutionary Warbroke out in April 1775, British troops were under siege inBoston. They defeatedPatriot forces in theBattle of Bunker Hill, suffering very high casualties. When news of this expensive British victory reached London, GeneralWilliam Howe and LordGeorge Germain, the British official responsible, determined that a "decisive action" should be taken againstNew York City using forces recruited from throughout theBritish Empire as well as troops hired from small German states.^[4]

Washington, who was namedcommander-in-chief of theContinental Army by theSecond Continental Congress inPhiladelphia, echoed the sentiments of other in the Congress that New York was "a post of infinite importance",^[5] and began the task of organizing military companies in the New York area when he stopped there on his way from Philadelphia to take command of thesiege of Boston.^[6] In January 1776, Washington orderedCharles Lee to raise troops and take command of New York's defenses.^[7] Lee made some progress on the city's defenses when word arrived in late March that the British army had leftBoston after Washingtonthreatened them from heights south of the city. Concerned that General Howe was sailing directly to New York, Washington hurried regiments from Boston, including GeneralIsrael Putnam, who commanded the troops until Washington himself arrived in mid-April.^[8] At the end of April, Washington dispatched GeneralJohn Sullivan with six regiments to the north to bolster the falteringQuebec campaign.^[9]

General Howe, rather than moving against New York, withdrew his army toHalifax inNova Scotia, and regrouped while transports full of British troops, shipped from bases around Europe and intended for New York, began gathering at Halifax. In June, Howe set sail for New York with the 9,000 men assembled there, before all of the transports arrived.^[10] German troops, primarily fromHesse-Kassel, and British troops fromHenry Clinton's ultimately unsuccessfulexpedition to the Carolinas, were supposed to meet with Howe's fleet when it reached New York. General Howe's brother, AdmiralLord Howe, arrived at Halifax with further transports after the general sailed, and immediately followed.^[10]

When General Howe arrived in theouter harbor of New York, the ships began sailing up the undefendedNarrows betweenStaten Island andLong Island on July 2, and started landing troops on the undefended shores of Staten Island. Washington learned from prisoners taken that Howe had landed 10,000 men, but was awaiting the arrival of another 15,000.^[11] General Washington, with a smaller army of about 19,000 effective troops, lacked significantmilitary intelligence on the British force and plans, and was uncertain exactly where in the New York area the Howes intended to strike. He consequently split the Continental Army between fortified positions on Long Island,Manhattan, and mainland locations,^[12] and also established aFlying Camp innorthern New Jersey that was intended as a reserve force that could support operations anywhere along the New Jersey side of the Hudson River.^[13]

The Howe brothers had been granted authority as peace commissioners by theBritish Parliament with limited powers to pursue a peaceful resolution to the conflict.King George III was not optimistic about the possibility for peace, however, saying, "yet I think it right to be attempted, whilst every act of vigour is unremittingly carried on".^[14] Their powers were limited to granting of "general and special pardons" and to "confer with any of his Majesty's subjects".^[14] On July 14, pursuant to these powers, Admiral Howe sent a messenger with a letter addressed to "George Washington, Esq." across the harbor.^[15] Washington's adjutant,Joseph Reed, politely informed the messenger that no person with that title was in their army. Admiral Howe's aide wrote that "the Punctilio of an Address" should not have prevented the letter's delivery, and Howe was said to be visibly annoyed by the rejection.^[16] A second request, addressed to "George Washington, Esq., etc." was similarly rejected, although the messenger was told that Washington would receive one of Howe's adjutants.^[16] In that fruitless meeting, held July 20, Washington pointed out that the limited powers the Howe brothers had been given were not of much use, as the rebels had done no wrong requiring an amnesty.^[16]

In late August, the British transported about 22,000 men, including 9,000Hessians, fromStaten Island toLong Island. In theBattle of Long Island on August 27, the Britishoutflanked the American positions, driving the Americans back to theirBrooklyn Heights fortifications. General Howe then began to lay siege to the works, but Washington skillfully managed a nighttimeretreat through his unguarded rear across theEast River to the island ofManhattan. Howe then paused to consolidate his position and consider his next move.^[17]

During the Battle of Long Island, the British captured GeneralJohn Sullivan. Admiral Howe convinced him to deliver a message to Congress in Philadelphia and released him on parole. Washington also gave his permission, and on September 2, Sullivan told the Congress that the Howes wanted to negotiate, and had been given much broader powers to treat than those they actually held. This created a diplomatic problem for Congress, which did not want to be seen as aggressive, which is how some representatives felt a direct rejection of the appeal would appear.^[18] Consequently, Congress agreed to send a committee to meet with the Howes in a move they did not think would bear any fruit. On September 11, the Howe brothers met withJohn Adams,Benjamin Franklin, andEdward Rutledge in theStaten Island Peace Conference. The positions expressed by the two groups in thethree-hour meeting were irreconcilable.^[19]

Washington, who had previously been ordered by the Continental Congress to holdNew York City, was concerned that he might have escaped one trap for another, since the army was still vulnerable to being surrounded on Manhattan. To keep his escape routes open to the north, he placed 5,000 troops in the city (which then only occupied the lower portion of Manhattan), and took the rest of the army toHarlem Heights. In the first recorded use of asubmarine in warfare, he also attempted a novel attack on the Royal Navy, launchingTurtle in a failed attempt to sinkHMS Eagle, Admiral Howe's flagship.^[20]

On September 15, General Howelanded about 12,000 men onLower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Americans withdrew toHarlem, where theyskirmished the next day, but held their ground.^[21] Rather than attempting to dislodge Washington from his strong position a second time, Howe again opted for a flanking maneuver. Landing troopswith some opposition in October inWestchester County across theHarlem River and north of Manhattan, he sought once again toencircle Washington. To defend against this move, Washington withdrew most of his army toWhite Plains, whereafter a short battle on October 28, he retreated further north. The retreat of Washington's forces was aided by a dense fog that concealed their movement from the British troops. This isolated the remaining Continental Army troops in upper Manhattan, so Howe returned to Manhattan andcapturedFort Washington in mid-November, taking almost 3,000 prisoners.

Four days later, on November 20,Fort Lee, across theHudson River from Fort Washington, was also taken. Washington brought much of his army across the Hudson into New Jersey, but was immediately forced to retreat by the aggressive British advance.^[22]

General Howe, after consolidating British positions around New York harbor, detached 6,000 men under the command of two of his more difficult subordinates, Henry Clinton, andHugh, Earl Percy to takeNewport, Rhode Island and its strategic port east acrossLong Island Sound (which they did without opposition on December 8),^[23] while he sentGeneral Lord Cornwallis to chase Washington's army through New Jersey. The Americans withdrew across theDelaware River intoPennsylvania in early December.^[24]

The outlook of the Continental Army—and thusthe revolution itself—was bleak. "These are the times that try men's souls", wroteThomas Paine inThe American Crisis.^[25] Washington's army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty and would be significantly reduced further after enlistments expired at the end of the year.^[26] Spirits were low, popular support was wavering, andCongress had abandoned Philadelphia, fearing a British attack.^[27] Washington ordered some of the troops that returned from the failedinvasion of Quebec to join him, and also ordered General Lee's troops, which he had left north of New York City, to join him.^[28] Lee, whose relationship with Washington was at times difficult, made excuses and only traveled as far asMorristown, New Jersey. When Lee strayed too far from his army on December 12, his exposed position was betrayed by Loyalists, and a British company led by Lieutenant ColonelBanastre Tarleton surrounded the inn where he was staying and took him prisoner. Lee's command was taken over by John Sullivan, who finished marching the army to Washington's camp across the river fromTrenton.^[29]

The capture of Lee presented the Howes with a problematic prisoner. As with several other Continental Army leaders, he had previously served in the British Army. Because of this, the Howes at first treated him as adeserter, with threats of military punishment. However, Washington intervened, tying the treatment of Lee to the treatment of prisoners held by the Americans. Lee was ultimately treated well and apparently offered the British commanders advice on how to win the war.^[30] Because the Americans did not have a prisoner of comparable rank, Lee remained a prisoner in New York until 1778, when he was exchanged forRichard Prescott.^[31]

The failure of the Continental Army to hold New York also brought about a rise in Loyalist activity, as the city became a haven for refugee supporters of the Crown from elsewhere across the region. The British, therefore, actively recruited in New York and New Jersey to build regiments of provincial militia, with some success. Loyalists in these areas may have been motivated by seeing elements of the rebel army head home after their enlistments ended.^[32] One New York Patriot militia leader wrote that thirty of his men, rather than reenlisting with him, had instead signed up with the enemy.^[33] On November 30, Admiral Howe offered amnesty to anyone who had taken up arms against the Crown, provided they swore an oath to it. Washington responded with his own proclamation, suggesting that those who did not renounce such oaths should immediately go behind British lines.^[34] As a result, New Jersey became a civil battlefield, with militia activity as well as spying and counterspying continuing for the rest of the war.^[35]

News of the capture of New York was favorably received inLondon, and General Howe was awarded theOrder of the Bath for his work.^[36] Combined with news of the recovery of Quebec, circumstances suggested to British leaders that the war could be ended with one more year's campaigning.^[37] News of Admiral Howe's amnesty proclamation was met with some surprise, as its terms were more lenient than the hardliners in the government expected. Politicians opposed to the war pointed out that the proclamation failed to mention the primacy of theParliament. Furthermore, the Howes were criticized for failing to keep Parliament informed of the various peace efforts they embarked on.^[38]

With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British established a chain of outposts in New Jersey stretching fromPerth Amboy toBordentown, and entered winter quarters. They controlled New York harbor and much of New Jersey, and were in a good position to resume operations in the spring, with the rebel capital of Philadelphia in striking distance.^[24] Howe detached General Clinton with 6,000 additional men to occupy Newport as a base for future operations against Boston and Connecticut.^[40] Howe then sketched a campaign for the following year in a letter to Lord Germain: 10,000 men at Newport, 10,000 for an expedition toAlbany (to meet an army descending from Quebec), 8,000 to cross New Jersey and threaten Philadelphia, and 5,000 to defend New York. If additional foreign forces were available, operations could also be considered against the southern states.^[41]

While worrying over how to hold his army together, Washington organized attacks on the relatively exposed British outposts, which were, as a result, continually on edge due to ongoing militia and army raids. German commandersCarl von Donop andJohann Rall, whose brigades were at the end of the chain of outposts, were frequent targets of these raids, but their repeated warnings and requests for support from GeneralJames Grant were dismissed.^[42]

Beginning in mid-December 1776, Washington planned a two-pronged attack on Rall's outpost in Trenton, with a third diversionary attack on Donop's outpost inBordentown. The plan was aided by the fortuitous presence of a militia company that drew Donop's entire 2,000-man force away from Bordentown to the south that resulting in askirmish at Mount Holly on December 23. The consequence of this action was that Donop was not in a position to assist Rall when Washington's attack on Trenton took place.^[43] Washington and 2,400 men stealthilycrossed the Delaware River andsurprised Rall's outpost on the morning of December 26 in a street-to-street battle, killing or capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians. This action not only significantly boosted the army's morale; it also brought Cornwallis out of New York. He reassembled an army of more than 6,000 men and marched most of them against a position Washington had taken south of Trenton. Leaving a garrison of 1,200 atPrinceton, Cornwallis thenattacked Washington's position on January 2, 1777, and was three times repulsed before darkness set in.^[44] During the night Washington once again stealthily moved his army, going around that of Cornwallis with the intention of attacking the Princeton garrison.^[45]

On January 3,Hugh Mercer, leading the American advance guard, encountered British soldiers from Princeton under the command ofCharles Mawhood. The British troops engaged Mercer and inthe ensuing battle, Mercer was mortally wounded. Washington sent reinforcements under GeneralJohn Cadwalader, which were successful in driving Mawhood and the British from Princeton, with many of them fleeing to Cornwallis in Trenton. The British lost more than one quarter of their force in the battle, and American morale further rose with the victory.^[46] This period, from December 25, 1776, through January 3, 1777, has become known as theTen Crucial Days.^[47]

The defeats convinced General Howe to withdraw most of his army from New Jersey, only leaving outposts atNew Brunswick andPerth Amboy. Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, having retaken most of the state from the British. However, provisions for both armies were limited, and commanders on both sides sent out parties to forage for food and other supplies. For the next few months, they engaged in aforage war, in which each targeted the foraging parties of the other. This led to numerous skirmishes and minor confrontations, including theBattle of Millstone. The British also sniped with each other over the subject of provisions. Lord Percy resigned his command after a series of disagreements with Howe came to a head over the ability of the Newport station to provide forage to the New York and New Jersey forces.^[48]

The British gained control ofNew York Harbor and the surrounding agricultural areas, and heldNew York City andLong Island until the war ended in 1783.^[49][50] The Americans suffered significant casualties and lost important supplies, but Washington managed to retain the core of his army and avoid a decisive confrontation that could have ended the war. With the bold strokes of Trenton and Princeton, he had regained initiative and boosted morale.^[51] The areas around New York City in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut werean ongoing battleground for the rest of the war.^[52]

The early reports that General Howe sent to his superiors in London concerning the battles at Trenton and Princeton attempted to minimize their significance, blaming Rall for Trenton and trying to recast Princeton as a nearly successful defense. Not everyone was fooled by his accounts, particularly not Lord Germain. In a letter to the Hessian GeneralLeopold Philip von Heister, Germain wrote that "the officer who commanded [the forces at Trenton] and to whom this misfortune is to be attributed has lost his life by his rashness."^[53] Heister in turn had to report the loss to his ruler,Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, with the news that not only had an entire brigade been lost, but sixteen regimental colors and six cannon as well. The news reportedly enraged Frederick, who broadly suggested that Heister return home (which he did, turning over command of the Hessian forces toWilhelm von Knyphausen).^[54] Frederick also ordered extensive inquiries into the events of 1776, that took place in New York from 1778 to 1782. These inquiries created a unique archive of materials about the campaign.^[55]

The news of Washington's successes reachedParis at a critical time. Britain's ambassador toFrance,Lord Stormont, was preparing complaints to France's foreign minister, theComte de Vergennes, concerning the semi-secret financial and logistical support France had been giving to the revolutionaries. Stormont had learned that supplies bound for America were to be shipped under French flags, where they had previously been sent under American colors. He wrote that the French court was extremely happy with the news, and that the French diplomatic position noticeably hardened: "that M. de Vergennes is hostile in his heart and anxious for the success of the Rebels I have not a shadow of a doubt."^[56]

The British planned two major operations for the 1777 campaign season. The first was an ambitious plan to gain control of theHudson River valley, whose central thrust was a move alongLake Champlain by the army fromQuebec under GeneralJohn Burgoyne. Execution of this planultimately failed, ending with the surrender of Burgoyne's army atSaratoga, New York, in October. The second operation was General Howe's plan to take Philadelphia, which, after a difficult start,met with success in September.^[57]

Washington's strategy in 1777 continued to be a basically defensive one. He successfully fended off an attempt by Howe to draw him into a general engagement innorthern New Jersey, but was unable to prevent Howe's later success takingPhiladelphia.^[57] He did send material help to GeneralHoratio Gates, who was tasked with defending against Burgoyne's movements.^[58] Major GeneralBenedict Arnold andDaniel Morgan's riflemen all played a notable role in the defeat of Burgoyne, following whichFrance entered the war.^[59]

In the urban environments ofManhattan,Brooklyn,The Bronx,Westchester, andTrenton, there are plaques and other memorials placed to commemorate the actions that took place in and around those locations.^[60][61] ThePrinceton Battlefield andWashington's Crossing areNational Historic Landmarks, with state parks also preserving all or part of the locations where events of this campaign occurred in those areas.^[62][63]Morristown National Historical Park preserves locations occupied by the Continental Army during the winter months at the end of the campaign.^[64]

When the illustrious part that your Excellency has borne in this long and arduous contest becomes a matter of history, fame will gather your brightest laurels rather from the banks of the Delaware than from those of theChesapeake.

• American Revolutionary War#Early engagements
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• The Continental Army Bibliography of Operations in New England TheaterArchived 2010-06-08 at theWayback Machine compiled by theUnited States Army Center of Military History
• The Continental Army Bibliography of Operations in New York TheaterArchived 2010-06-08 at theWayback Machine compiled by theUnited States Army Center of Military History

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