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New York City English

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Variety of American English
"New York English" and "New York dialect" redirect here. For other uses, seeNew York English (disambiguation).

New York City English
RegionNew York metropolitan area
EthnicityVarious(seeDemographics of New York City)
Early forms
Language codes
ISO 639-3–
Glottolognewy1234
IETFen-u-sd-usny
This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

New York City English, orMetropolitan New York English,[1] is a regionaldialect ofAmerican English spoken primarily inNew York City and some ofits surrounding metropolitan area. Along withSouthern American English, it has been described by sociolinguistWilliam Labov as one of the most widely recognized regional dialects in the United States.[2][3][4] Its pronunciation system—theNew York accent—is widely represented in American media by many public figures and fictional characters. Major features of the accent include ahigh,gliding/ɔ/ vowel (in words liketalk andcaught); asplit of the "short a" vowel/æ/ into two separate sounds; variabledropping ofr sounds; and a lack of thecot–caught,Mary–marry–merry, andhurry–furry mergers heard in many other American accents.

Today, New York City English is associated particularly with urban New Yorkers of lower and middlesocioeconomic status who are descended from 19th- and 20th-century European immigrants.[5] The dialect is spoken in all fiveboroughs of the City and throughoutLong Island'sNassau County; it is also heard to varying degrees inSuffolk County (Long Island),Westchester County, andRockland County of New York State plusHudson County,Bergen County, and the city ofNewark (Essex County) innortheastern New Jersey.[6]

History

[edit]

The origins of many of New York City English's diverse features are probably not recoverable. New York City English, largely with the same major pronunciation system popularly recognized today, was first reproduced in literature and scientifically documented in the 1890s.[7] It was then, and still mostly is, associated with ethnically diverseEuropean-American native-English speakers. The entireMid-Atlantic United States, including both New York City and theDelaware Valley (whoseown distinct dialect centers aroundPhiladelphia andBaltimore) shares certain key features, including ahigh/ɔ/ vowel with aglide (sometimes called theaww vowel) as well as aphonemic split of the shorta vowel,/æ/ (makinggas andgap, for example, have different vowels sounds)—New York City's split not identical though to Philadelphia's. LinguistWilliam Labov has pointed out that a similarly structured (though differently pronounced)split is found today even in the southern accents of England; thus, a single common origin of this split may trace back to colonial-era England.[a]

New York City became an urban economic power in the eighteenth century, with the city's financial elites maintaining close ties with the British Empire even after the Revolutionary War. According to Labov, New York City speakers'loss of ther sound after vowels (incidentally, not found in the nearby Delaware Valley) began as a nineteenth-century imitation of theprestigious British feature, consistently starting among the upper classes in New York City before spreading to other socioeconomic classes.[8] After World War II, social perceptions reversed andr-preserving (rhotic) pronunciations became the new American prestige standard, rejecting East Coast and British accent features,[9] while postwar migrations transferred rhotic speakers directly to New York City from other regions of the country. The result is that non-rhoticity, which was once a high-status feature and later a city-wide feature, has been diminishing and now, since the mid-twentieth century onward, largely remains only among lower-status New Yorkers.[10] Today, New York City metropolitan accents are often rhotic or variably rhotic.

Other features of the dialect, such as the dental pronunciations ofd andt, and relatedth-stopping, likely come from contact with foreign languages, particularly Italian andYiddish, brought into New York City through its huge immigration waves of Europeans during the mid-to-late nineteenth century and twentieth century. Grammatical structures, such as the lack of inversion in indirect questions, similarly suggest contact with immigrant languages, plus several words common in the city are derived from such foreign languages.[11]

Influence on other dialects

[edit]

Philadelphians born in the early and mid-twentieth century exhibit a short-a split system that some linguists regard as a simplification of the very similar New York City short-a split.[12] Younger Philadelphians, however, are retreating from many of the traditional features shared in common with New York City.[4] Due to an influx of immigrants from New York City and neighboring New Jersey tosouthern Florida, some resident southern Floridians now speak with an accent reminiscent of a New York accent. Additionally, as a result of social and commercial contact betweenNew Orleans, Louisiana, and New York City,[13] the traditional accent of New Orleans, known locally as "Yat", bears distinctive similarities with the New York accent, including the (moribund)coil–curl merger, raising of the/ɔ/ vowel to[ɔə], a similar split in the short-a system, andth-stopping. Similarly, dialectal similarities suggest that older New York City English also influencedCincinnati, Ohio, andAlbany, New York, whose older speakers in particular may still exhibit a short-a split system that linguists suggest is an expanded or generalized variant of the New York City short-a system. Certain New York City dialect features also understandably appear inNew York Latino English.

Recent developments

[edit]

Though William Labov argued in 2010 that the New York City accent is basically stable at the moment,[14] some recent studies have revealed a trend of recession in most features of the accent, especially among younger speakers from middle-class or higher backgrounds. Documented loss of New York City accent features includes the loss of thecoil–curl merger (now almost completely extinct), non-rhoticity, and the extremely raised long vowel[ɔ] (as intalk,cough, orlaw). Researchers proposed that the motivation behind these recessive trends is the stigmatization of the typical New York City accent since the mid-1900s as being associated with a poorer or working-class background, often also corresponding with particular ethnic identities. While earlier projects detected trends of emphasizing New York City accents as part of a process of social identification, recent research attributes the loss of typical accent features to in-group ethnic distancing. In other words, many of the young generations of ethnic groups who formerly were the most representative speakers of the accent are currently avoiding its features to not stand out socially or ethnically.[15]

Pronunciation

[edit]
Main article:New York accent

The pronunciation of New York City English, most popularly acknowledged by the termNew York accent, is readily noticed and stereotyped, garnering considerable attention in American culture.[16] Some distinctive phonological features include its traditionaldropping ofr except before vowels, ashort-a split system (in which, for example, thea ingas is notassonant to thea ingap), ahighgliding/ɔ/ vowel (in words liketalk,thought,all, etc. and thus an absence of thecot–caught merger),[16] absence of theMary–marry–merry merger, and the highly stigmatized (and largely now-extinct)coil–curl merger.[17]

Vocabulary and grammar

[edit]

These are some words or grammatical constructions used mainly in Greater New York City:

  • bodega/boʊˈdeɪgə/: a small neighborhood convenience store; used in recent decades, particularly in New York City though not onLong Island generally; it comes from Spanish, originally meaning "a wine storehouse" via thePuerto Rican Spanish term for "small store; corner store"; by extension, "bodega cats" is the term for the cats that inhabit such establishments.[18] These small stores may also be calleddelis, which is the short form ofdelicatessens.
  • bubkes/ˈbʌpkəs/: a worthless amount; little or nothing (from Yiddish; probably an abbreviation ofkozebubkes, literally, "goat droppings")[19]
  • dungarees: an older term forblue jeans[20]
  • egg cream: a mixture of cold milk, chocolate or vanilla syrup, and seltzer (carbonated water)[20]
  • have a catch: toplay a game of catch[20]
  • hero: a footlong sandwich or "sub"[20]
  • Mischief Night: the night beforeHalloween
  • on line: Metro New Yorkers tend to say they standon line, whereas most other New York State and American English speakers tend to standin line.[21]
  • punchball andstickball:street variants ofbaseball, suitable for smaller urban areas, in which a fist or stick substitutes for the bat and a rubber ball (a "Spaldeen") is used[20]
  • skel(l): avagrant,beggar, or small-time street criminal[19]
  • s(c)hmuck: an insulting term for an unlikeable man (from Yiddishshmok: "penis")[19]

The wordpunk tends to be used as a synonym for "weak", "someone unwilling or unable to defend himself" or perhaps "loser", though it appears to descend from an outdated New YorkAfrican-American English meaning ofmale receptive participant in anal sex.[22]

Conversational styles

[edit]

New York City speakers have some unique conversational styles. Linguistics professor Deborah Tannen notes in aNew York Times article it has "an emphasis to involve the other person, rather than being considerate. It would be asking questions as a show of interest in the other person, whereas in other parts of [the] country, people don't ask because it might put the person on the spot." Metro New Yorkers "stand closer, talk louder, and leave shorter pauses between exchanges," Tannen said. "I call it 'cooperative overlap'. It's a way of showing interest and enthusiasm, but it's often mistaken for interrupting by people from elsewhere in the country." On the other hand, linguist William Labov demurs, "there's nothing known to linguists about 'normal New York City conversation.'"[23]

Notable speakers

[edit]

The New York accent has a strong presence in media; pioneervariationist sociolinguistWilliam Labov described it as one of the two most recognizable regional accents ofNorth American English (the other being theSouthern accent).[4][3][2] The following famous people are native New York City–area speakers—including some speakers of other varieties native to the region—that all demonstrate typical features of the New York accent.

Fictional characters

[edit]

Many fictional characters in popular films and television shows have used New York City English, whether or not the actors portraying them are native speakers of the dialect. Some examples are listed below.

Geographic boundaries

[edit]

The accent is not spoken in the rest ofNew York State beyond the immediate New York City metropolitan area. Specifically, the upperHudson Valley mixes New York City andWestern New England accent features, whileCentral andWestern New York belong to the same dialect region as Great Lakes cities such asChicago andDetroit, a dialect region known as theInland North.[398][399]

New York State

[edit]

New York City English is confined to a geographically small but densely populated area of New York State including allfive boroughs of New York City as well as many parts ofLong Island; the dialect region spans all ofNassau County and some ofSuffolk County.[6][400][401][402] Moreover, the English of the Hudson Valley forms a continuum of speakers who exhibit more features of New York City English the closer they are to the city itself;[403] some of the dialect's features may be heard as far north as the state capital ofAlbany.[404]

Connecticut

[edit]

A small portion of southwesternConnecticut speaks a similar dialect, primarily speakers inFairfield County and as far asNew Haven County.[405]

New Jersey

[edit]
See also:New Jersey English

Thenortheastern quarter ofNew Jersey, prominentlyHudson,Bergen,Union, andEssex Counties, including the municipalities ofWeehawken,Hoboken,Jersey City, andNewark,[406] plusMiddlesex andMonmouth Counties, are all within theNew York metropolitan area and thus also home to the major features of New York City English. With the exception of New York City's immediate neighbors like Jersey City and Newark,[8] the New York metropolitan dialect as spoken in New Jersey isrhotic (or fullyr-pronouncing) so that, whereas a Brooklynite might pronounce "over there" something like "ovah theah/deah"[oʊvəˈd̪ɛə], anElizabeth native might say "over there/dare"[oʊvɚˈd̪ɛɚ].The Atlas of North American English byWilliam Labov et al. shows that theshort-a pattern of New York City has diffused to manyr-pronouncing communities in northern New Jersey, likeRutherford (Labov's birthplace) andNorth Plainfield. However, in these communities, thefunction word constraint of the city's short-a pattern is lost, and theopen syllable constraint is used only variably.[407]

Notable speakers

[edit]

The following is a list of notable lifelong native speakers of the New York City English of northeastern New Jersey, regardless of their level of rhoticity:

See also

[edit]

Explanatory notes

[edit]
  1. ^Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 173: "In NYC and the Mid-Atlantic region, short-a is split into a tense and lax class. There is reason to believe that the tense class/æh/ descends from the British/ah/ or 'broad-a' class."

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^Morén, Bruce (2000).Distinctiveness, Coercion and Sonority: A Unified Theory of Weight. Routledge. p. 203.
  2. ^abLabov, William (2006) [1966].The Social Stratification of English in New York City (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 18.ISBN 0-521-82122-3.
  3. ^abLabov, Ash & Boberg (2006), pp. 233, 240
  4. ^abcLabov, W.; Rosenfelder, I.; Fruehwald, J. (2013)."One Hundred Years of Sound Change in Philadelphia: Linear Incrementation, Reversal, and Reanalysis"(PDF).Language.89 (1): 30–65 [pp. 59, 61].doi:10.1353/lan.2013.0015.hdl:20.500.11820/6aaeba15-89f6-4419-a930-7694d9463d43.JSTOR 23357721.S2CID 56451894.
  5. ^Newman, 2014, pp. 1–3.
  6. ^abNewman, 2014, pp. 17–18: "Although small, the [dialect] region is certainly populous. The 2010 US Census gives the population of New York City at 8,175,133. Nassau County, which is entirely within the dialect region, adds 1,339,532. The remaining counties are only partly inside. They include Suffolk (1,493,350), Westchester (949,113), and Rockland (311,687) in New York State and Hudson (905,113) and Bergen (905,116) in New Jersey ... Labov, et al. (2006) found that Newark, in Essex County, also had NYCE features."
  7. ^Mencken, H. L. (January 4, 2012).American Language. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 367.ISBN 978-0-307-80879-0.
  8. ^abLabov, Ash & Boberg (2006), p. 47
  9. ^Labov (1966/2006)
  10. ^Sȩn, Ann L. (1979). "English in the Big Apple: Historical Backgrounds of New York City Speech".The English Journal.68 (8):52–55.doi:10.2307/815156.JSTOR 815156.
  11. ^Labov (1972)
  12. ^Ash, Sharon (2002). "The Distribution of a Phonemic Split in the Mid-Atlantic Region: Yet More on Shorta"Archived March 4, 2016, at theWayback Machine. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics. University of Pennsylvania. p. 1
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  16. ^abLabov et al., 2006, p. 233
  17. ^Labov et al., 2006, p. 260
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  429. ^Iley, Chrissy (April 9, 2007)."I'm in tune with my feelings".The Guardian. London. Archived fromthe original on August 31, 2013. RetrievedAugust 31, 2014.
  430. ^Phillips, Andrew (January 16, 2003)."INTERVIEW: Goodfellas Ray Liotta: and how I learned that you should never steal from a wise guy".GW Hatchet. Archived fromthe original on June 22, 2008. RetrievedJuly 28, 2008.
  431. ^Dennis DJ Mikolay (July 19, 2013)."NJ Senate Candidate Voices Opposition to NSA Surveillance".Independent Voter News. Foundation for Independent Voter Education. RetrievedApril 23, 2025.Aside from his North Jersey accent
  432. ^Epstein, Reid J. (June 22, 2016)."Stop-Trump Groups Air Ads Aiming to Unbind Delegates".The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones & Company. RetrievedApril 23, 2025.
  433. ^Daniels, Doug (May 2008). "Welcome to Jersey City Politics".Politics. Vol. 29, no. 5. Plainsboro, N.J.: Votenet Solutions. pp. 24–29.ProQuest 215694255.
  434. ^Racioppi, Dustin (December 22, 2023)."New Jersey Muslims mobilize against longtime Congressman over Israel stance".Politico. RetrievedMay 24, 2025.
  435. ^Blumenfeld, Robert (2002).Accents: A Manual for Actors. Vol. 1. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 166.ISBN 9780879109677. RetrievedAugust 31, 2014.
  436. ^Hutchins, Ryan (October 22, 2018)."New Jersey Democrats making sure Booker can run for president, Senate at same time".Politico. Trenton, N.J. RetrievedApril 23, 2025.
  437. ^Chilla, Mark (December 16, 2022)."Harry, Tommy, and Axel: Sinatra's First Five Years | afterglow".Indiana Public Media.But with his Italian heritage and lingering Hoboken accent, ...
  438. ^Kraszewski, Jon (2017).Reality TV. New York, NY: Routledge – Taylor & Francis. p. 71.ISBN 978-0-415-74197-2.Although matchmaker Patti Stanger dresses in expensive designer clothes and drives luxury cars, she retains a working-class New Jersey accent from her childhood.
  439. ^Tucker, Ken (June 30, 1995)."TV Review: Welcome Back, Kotter".EW.com.Archived from the original on January 22, 2007. RetrievedJuly 10, 2008.
  440. ^Dick, Bernard F. (2001). "The Diller Days".Engulfed: The Death of Paramount Pictures and the Birth of Corporate Hollywood.University Press of Kentucky. p. 182.ISBN 978-0-8131-2202-1.
  441. ^Newman, Melinda (December 19, 2007)."For All Seasons: A Profile of Frankie Valli".New Jersey Monthly. RetrievedMarch 6, 2025.
  442. ^Bogage, Jacob (January 9, 2020)."Dick Vitale wants to talk college basketball until he's 100. He's serious, baby".Washington Post. Nash Holdings. RetrievedJuly 12, 2023.that distinctive North Jersey accent
  443. ^Grow, Kory (January 21, 2014)."Zakk Wylde Laughs Through Dark Times for April's 'Black Vatican' LP".Rolling Stone. Penske Media Corporation. RetrievedJuly 11, 2023.... Wylde's callous cackles show that there is more to his gruff, intimidating, North Jersey accent ...

General and cited references

[edit]
  • Babbitt, Eugene H. (1896). "The English of the lower classes in New York City and vicinity".Dialect Notes.1:457–464.
  • Becker, Kara & Amy Wing Mei Wong. 2009.The Short-a System of New York City English: An Update.University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics. Volume 15, Issue 2 Article 3. pp: 10–20.
  • Becker, Kara & Elizabeth Coggshall. 2010. The vowel phonologies of white and African American New York Residents. In Malcah Yaeger-Dror and *Erik R. Thomas (eds.)African American English Speakers And Their Participation In Local Sound Changes: A Comparative Study. American Speech Volume Supplement 94, Number 1. Chapel Hill, NC: Duke University Press. pp: 101–128
  • Becker, Kara & Elizabeth L. Coggshall. 2009. The Sociolinguistics of Ethnicity in New York City, Language and Linguistic Compass, 3(3): 751–766.4
  • Becker, Kara (2009). "/r/ and the construction of place identity on New York City's Lower East Side".Journal of Sociolinguistics.13 (5):634–658.doi:10.1111/j.1467-9841.2009.00426.x.
  • Becker, Kara. 2010.Regional Dialect Features on the Lower East Side of New York City: Sociophonetics, Ethnicity, and Identity. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, NYU.
  • Bonfiglio, Thomas Paul. 2002.Race and the Rise of Standard American. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 214–225.ISBN 978-3-1101-7189-1.
  • Cutler, Cece (1999). "Yorkville Crossing: White teens, hip hop and African American English".Journal of Sociolinguistics.3 (4):428–442.doi:10.1111/1467-9481.00089.
  • Cutler, Cece (2007). "Hip-hop language in sociolinguistics and beyond". Language and Linguistics Compass, 1(5):519–538.doi:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2007.00021.x.
  • Cutler, Cece (2008). "Brooklyn Style: hip-hop markers and racial affiliation among European immigrants". International Journal of Bilingualism, 12(1–2), 7–24.
  • Gordon, Matthew (2004). Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W. (eds.).New York, Philadelphia and other Northern Cities. Mouton de Gruyter.ISBN 978-3110175325.
  • Hubbell, Allan F. 1972.The Pronunciation of English in New York City. NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
  • Kurath, Hans and Raven I. McDavid. 1961.The Pronunciation of English in the Atlantic States. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  • Labov, William,Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins, and John Lewis. 1968.A study of the Non-Standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New York City, V. 1: Phonological and Grammatical Analysis. Washington, DC: Office of Education, Bureau of Research/ERIC.
  • Labov, William,Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins, and John Lewis. 1968.A study of the Non-Standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New York City', V. 2: The Use of Language in the Speech Community. Washington, DC: Office of Education, Bureau of Research/ERIC.
  • Labov, William (1966).The Social Stratification of English in New York City(PDF) (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on August 24, 2014.
  • Labov, William. 1972a.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Labov, William. 1972b.Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Labov, William (1994)Principles of Linguistic Change: Volume 1: Internal Factors BlackwellISBN 0-631-17914-3
  • Labov, William (2001)Principles of Linguistic Change: Volume 2: Social Factors BlackwellISBN 0-631-17916-X
  • Labov, William (2006).The Social Stratification of English in New York City (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0521528054.
  • Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006).The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton-de Gruyter.ISBN 978-3-11-016746-7.
  • Labov, William (2007)"Transmission and Diffusion",Language June 2007
  • Newman, Michael (2005). "New York Talk" inAmerican Voices Walt Wolfram and Ben Ward (eds.). p. 82–87. Blackwell.ISBN 1-4051-2109-2.
  • Newman, Michael (2010). "Focusing, implicational scaling, and the dialect status of New York Latino English".Journal of Sociolinguistics.14 (2):207–239.doi:10.1111/j.1467-9841.2010.00441.x.
  • Schneider, E. W., Kortmann, B. (2005), A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multi-Media Reference Tool, Mouton de Gruyter,ISBN 3-11-017532-0, p. 284
  • Slomanson, Peter; Newman, Michael (2004). "Peer Group Identification and Variation in New York Latino English Laterals".English World-Wide.25 (2):199–216.doi:10.1075/eww.25.2.03slo.S2CID 35393553.
  • Thomas, C. K. (1932). "Jewish dialect and New York Dialect".American Speech.7 (5):321–6.doi:10.2307/452953.JSTOR 452953.
  • Thomas, C. K. (1942). "Pronunciation in downstate New York".American Speech.17 (1):30–41.doi:10.2307/486854.JSTOR 486854.
  • Thomas, C. K. (1947). "The place of New York City in American linguistic geography".Quarterly Journal of Speech.33 (3):314–20.doi:10.1080/00335634709381312.
  • Wells, J. C. 1982.Accents of English.3 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Wolfram, Walt. 1974.Sociolinguistic Aspects of Assimilation: Puerto Rican English in New York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.
  • Wolfram, Walt & Natalie Schilling Estes (2006)American English 2nd edition BlackwellISBN 1-4051-1265-4
  • Wolfram, Walt & Ward, Ben (2005)American Voices: How Dialects Differ from Coast to Coast BlackwellISBN 1-4051-2109-2
  • Wong, Amy (2007). "Two Vernacular Features in the English of Four American-Born Chinese".University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics.13 (2):217–230.

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