New Model Army
The Souldiers Catechiſme:[1] Religious justification for the New Model Army
Active	1645–1660
Country	Commonwealth of England
Allegiance	Council of State (1649–1653; 1659–1660) Lord Protector (1653–1659)
Type	Army
Engagements	First English Civil War Second English Civil War Conquest of Ireland Third English Civil War First Anglo-Dutch War Second Anglo-Spanish War
Commanders
Commander-in-Chief	Thomas Fairfax,George Monck
Notable commanders	Oliver Cromwell,Thomas Pride,John Lambert,Henry Ireton,William Lockhart

TheNew Model Army orNew Modelled Army was astanding army formed in 1645 by theParliamentarians during theFirst English Civil War, then disbanded after theStuart Restoration in 1660. It differed from other armies employed in the 1639 to 1653Wars of the Three Kingdoms in that members were liable for service anywhere in the country, rather than being limited to a single area orgarrison. To establish a professional officer corps, the army's leaders were prohibited from having seats in either theHouse of Lords orHouse of Commons. This was to encourage their separation from the political or religious factions among the Parliamentarians.

The New Model Army was raised partly from among veteran soldiers who already had deeply heldPuritan religious beliefs, and partly fromconscripts who brought with them many commonly held beliefs about religion or society. Many of its common soldiers therefore helddissenting or radical views unique among English armies. Although the Army's senior officers did not share many of their soldiers' political opinions, their independence fromParliament led to the Army's willingness to contribute to both Parliament's authority and to overthrow the Crown, and to establish aCommonwealth of England from 1649 to 1660, which included a period of direct military rule.

The forces raised in 1642 by bothRoyalists andParliamentarians were based on part-time militia known asTrained bands. Founded in 1572, these were organised bycounty, controlled byLord-lieutenants appointed by the king, and constituted the only permanent military force in the country. The muster roll of February 1638 shows wide variations in size, equipment and training; the largest and best trained were based inLondon with 8,000, later increased to 20,000.^[2] When theFirst English Civil War began in August 1642, many of the largest militia were based in Parliamentarian areas like London, while Royalist counties likeShropshire orGlamorgan had fewer than 500 men.^[3]

The weakness of this system was the reluctance of locally raised troops to serve outside their "home" areas, a problem for both sides during the war. On 19 November 1644, the ParliamentarianEastern Association announced that they could no longer meet the cost of maintaining their forces, which then comprised about half the field force available to Parliament. In response, theCommittee of Both Kingdoms conducted a wide-ranging review of further military needs and recommended the establishment of a centralised, professional force. On 30 January 1645, committeemen of the Eastern Association discussed their concerns at theBury Conference atBury St Edmunds.^[4]: 191 On 17 February 1645, the New Model Army Ordinance became law, with SirThomas Fairfax being appointed Captain General, or commander in chief, andPhilip Skippon being appointed Major General of the Foot.^[5][6]

The review coincided with increasing dissatisfaction as to the conduct of certain senior commanders; in July 1644, a Parliamentarian force under Fairfax andOliver Cromwell secured control ofNorthern England by victory atMarston Moor. However, this was offset first by defeat atLostwithiel in September, then lack of decisiveness at theSecond Battle of Newbury in October. The two commanders involved,Essex andManchester, were accused by many inParliament of lacking commitment, a group that included moderates like SirWilliam Waller as well as radicals like Cromwell.^[7]

In December 1644,Sir Henry Vane introduced theSelf-denying Ordinance, requiring those holding military commissions to resign from Parliament. As members of theHouse of Lords, Manchester and Essex were automatically removed, since (unlikeMPs) they could not resign their titles, although they could be re-appointed, 'if Parliament approved'.^[8] Although delayed by the Lords, the Ordinance came into force on 3 April 1645. Since Cromwell wasMP forCambridge, command of the cavalry was initially given to ColonelBartholomew Vermuyden, a former officer in the Eastern Association who was of Dutch origin and wanted to return home.^[9] Fairfax asked that Cromwell be appointed Lieutenant General of the Horse in place of Vermuyden, making him one of two original exceptions to the Self-denying Ordinance, the other beingSir William Brereton, commander inCheshire. They were allowed to serve under a series of three-month temporary commissions that were continually extended.^[10]

Other Parliamentarian forces were consolidated into two regional armies, theNorthern Association underSydnam Poyntz^[11] and theWestern Association underEdward Massey.^[12]

Parliament authorised an Army of 22,000 soldiers, most of whom came from three existing Parliamentarian armies; that commanded by the Earl of Essex, Waller's Southern Association and the Eastern Association under the Earl of Manchester.^[13] It comprised 6,600 cavalry, divided into eleven units of 600 men, 14,400 foot, comprising twelve regiments of 1,200 men, and 1,000dragoons. Originally, each regiment of cavalry had a company of dragoons attached, but at the urging of Fairfax on 1 March they were formed into a separate unit commanded by ColonelJohn Okey.^[14] Although the cavalry regiments were already up to strength, the infantry was severely understrength and in May 1645 was still 4,000 men below the approved level.^[15]

By creating fewer but larger regiments, the re-organisation greatly reduced the requirement for officers and seniorNCOs. Fairfax had more than double the number of officers needed to fill his 200 vacancies and those deemed surplus to requirements were either discharged or persuaded to re-enlist at a lower rank.^[5] Essex and Manchester raised objections to around 30% of those on the list, for reasons that are still debated, but ultimately only five changes were approved.^[16] In addition, several Scots officers refused to take up their appointments, includingJohn Middleton, originally colonel of the Second Regiment of Horse.^[17]

The standard daily pay was 8 pence for infantry and 2shillings for cavalry, who also had to supply their own horses, while the administration of the Army was more centralised, with improved provision of adequate food, clothing and other supplies. At the same time, recruits were also supposed to be motivated by religious fervour, as demonstrated in the "Soldier's catechism", written byRobert Ram.^[1] On 9 June 1645, SirSamuel Luke, one of the officers discharged, wrote the Army was "the bravest for bodies of men, horse and arms so far as the common soldiers as ever I saw in my life". However, he later complained that many soldiers were drunk and their officers were often indistinguishable from enlisted men.^[18]

The extent to which the Army can be seen as a hotbed of religious and political radicalism is disputed, particularly since many of those now viewed as radicals, likeThomas Horton orThomas Pride, were not considered such at the time. It is generally agreed that Fairfax, himself a moderate Presbyterian, sought to achieve a balance, while Essex and Manchester tried to remove those they viewed as unsuitable.^[19] What is debated is whether they did so for military reasons, favouring the retention of established officer cadres, or to eliminate personal enemies and those considered too radical. Ultimately they failed and Fairfax successfully achieved his objective.^[20]

TheOxford English Dictionary dated the earliest use of the phrase "New Model Army" to the works of the Scottish historianThomas Carlyle in 1845, and the exact term does not appear in 17th- or 18th-century documents. Records from February 1646 refer to the "New Modelled Army"—the idiom of the time being to refer to an army that was "new-modelled" rather than appending the word "army" to "new model".^[21]

The order of battle was as follows:^[22]

The New Model Army's elite troops were its Regiments ofHorse. They were armed and equipped in the style known at the time asharquebusiers, rather than as heavily armouredcuirassiers. They wore a back-and-front breastplate over abuff leather coat, which itself gave some protection against sword cuts, and normally alobster-tailed pot helmet with a movable three-barred visor.^[24]

Regiments were organised into six troops, of one hundred troopers plus officers, non-commissioned officers and specialists (drummers,farriers etc.). Each troop had its own standard, 2 feet (61 cm) square. On the battlefield, a regiment was normally formed as two "divisions" of three troops, one commanded by the regiment's colonel (or the major, if the colonel was not present), the other by the lieutenant colonel.^[25]

Their discipline was markedly superior to that of their Royalist counterparts. Cromwell specifically forbade his men to gallop after a fleeing enemy, but demanded they hold the battlefield. This meant that the New Model cavalry could charge, break an enemy force, regroup and charge again at another objective. On the other hand, when required to pursue, they did so relentlessly, not breaking ranks to loot abandoned enemy baggage as Royalist horse often did.^[26]

The New Model Army contained one regiment ofdragoons of twelve companies, each of one hundred men, under ColonelJohn Okey. Dragoons were mounted infantry, and wore much the same uniform as musketeers although they probably wore stout cloth gaiters to protect the legs while they rode. They were armed withflintlock "snaphaunces".^[27]

On the battlefield, their major function was to clear enemy musketeers from in front of their main position. At theBattle of Naseby, they were used to outflank enemy cavalry.^[28]

In 1650, Okey's dragoons were converted into a regiment of horse. It appears that, after that date, unregimented companies of dragoons raised from the Militia and other sources were attached to the regiments of horse and foot as required. This was the case at theBattle of Dunbar on 3 September 1650.^[29]

The Regiments of Foot consisted of ten companies, in whichmusketeers andpikemen were mixed, at least on the march. Seven companies consisted of one hundred soldiers, plus officers, specialists and so on, and were commanded by captains. The other three companies were nominally commanded by the regiment's colonel, lieutenant colonel and major, and were stronger (200, 160 and 140 ordinary soldiers respectively).^[30]

The regiments of foot were provided withred coats. Red was chosen because uniforms were purchased competitively from the lowest bidder, andVenetian red was the least expensive dye. Those used by the various regiments were distinguished by differently coloured linings, which showed at the collar and ends of the sleeves, and generally matched the colours of the regimental and company standards. In time, they became the official "Facing colour".^[31] On some occasions, regiments were referred to, for example, as the "blue" regiment or the "white" regiment from these colours, though in formal correspondence they were referred to by the name of their colonel. Each company had its own standard, 6 feet (180 cm) square. The colonel's company's standard was plain, the lieutenant colonel's had a cross of Saint George in the upper corner nearest the staff, the major's had a "flame" issuing from the cross, and the captains' standards had increasing numbers of heraldic decorations, such as roundels or crosses to indicate their seniority.^[32]

The New Model Army always had two musketeers for each pikeman,^[33] though depictions of battles show them present in equal numbers.^[a]

Pikemen, when fully equipped, wore apot helmet, back- and breastplates over a buff coat, and often also armouredtassets to protect the upper legs. They carried a sixteen-foot pike, and a sword. The heavily burdened pikeman usually dictated the speed of the Army's movement. They were frequently ordered to discard the tassets, and individual soldiers were disciplined for sawing a foot or two from the butts of their pikes,^[34] although senior officers were recommended to make the men accustomed to marching with heavy loads by regular route marches. In irregular fighting in Ireland, the New Model temporarily gave up the pike.^[35] In battle, the pikemen were supposed to project a solid front of spearheads, to protect the musketeers from cavalry while they reloaded. They also led the infantry advance against enemy foot units, when things came topush of pike.^[36]

The musketeers wore no armour, at least by the end of the Civil War,^[37] although it is not certain that none had iron helmets at the beginning. They wore a bandolier from which were suspended twelve wooden containers, each with a ball and measured charge of powder for theirmatchlock muskets. These containers are sometimes referred to as the "Twelve Apostles".^[38] According to one source, they carried 1 lb of fine powder, for priming, to 2 lbs of lead and 2 lbs of ordinary powder, the actual charging powder, for 3 lbs of lead.^[39] They were normally deployed six ranks deep, and were supposed to keep up a constant fire by means of thecountermarch—either by introduction, whereby the rear rank filed to the front to fire a volley, or byretroduction, where the front rank fired a volley then filed to the rear. By the time that they reached the front rank again, they should have reloaded and been prepared to fire. At close quarters, there was often no time for musketeers to reload, and they used their musket butts as clubs. They carriedswords, but these were often of inferior quality, and ruined by use for cutting firewood.^[40]

The establishment of the New Model Army'sartillery varied over time, and the artillery was administered separately from the Horse and Foot. At the Army's formation, Thomas Hammond (brother of Colonel Robert Hammond, who commanded a Regiment of Foot) was appointed Lieutenant General of the Ordnance.^[41]

The establishment of the New Model also included at least two companies of "firelocks" orfusiliers, who wore "tawny coats" instead of red,^[42] commanded initially by MajorJohn Desborough.^[41]

The artillery was used to most effect insieges, where its role was to blast breaches in fortifications for the infantry to assault. Cromwell and the other commanders of the Army were not trained in siege warfare and generally tried to take fortified towns by storm rather than go through the complex and time-consuming process of building earthworks and trenches around it so that batteries of cannon could be brought close to the walls to pound it into surrender. The Army generally performed well when storming fortifications, for example at thesiege of Drogheda, but paid a heavy price atClonmel when Cromwell ordered them to attack a well-defended breach.^[43]

The New Model did not use tents, instead being quartered in whatever buildings (houses, barns etc.) were available, until they began to serve in the less populated areas of the countries of Ireland and Scotland. In 1650, their tents were each for six men, a file, who carried the tents in parts.^[44] In campaigns in Scotland, the troops carried with them seven days' rations, consisting exclusively of biscuit and cheese.^[45]

The Army took the field in late April or May, 1645. After an attempt to raise thesiege of Taunton was abandoned, the Army began asiege of Oxford, sending a detachment of one regiment of cavalry and four of infantry to reinforce the defenders of Taunton. After the Royalists capturedLeicester, Fairfax was ordered to leave Oxford and march north to confront the King's army. On 14 June, the New Model destroyed King Charles' smaller but veteran army at theBattle of Naseby. Leaving the Scots and locally raised forces to contain the King, Fairfax marched into theWest Country, where they destroyed the remaining Royalist field army atLangport on 10 July. Thereafter, they reduced the Royalist fortresses in the west and south of England. The last fortress in the west surrendered in early 1646, shortly before Charles surrendered himself to a Scottish army and hostilities ended.^[46]

Having won theFirst Civil War, the soldiers became discontented with theLong Parliament, for several reasons. Firstly, they had not been paid regularly – pay was weeks in arrears – and on the end of hostilities, theconservative MPs in Parliament wanted to either disband the Army or send them to fight in Ireland without addressing the issue of back pay. Secondly, the Long Parliament refused to grant the soldiersamnesty from prosecution for any criminal acts they had been ordered to commit in the Civil War. The soldiers demanded indemnity as several soldiers were hanged after the war for crimes such as stealing horses for use by the cavalry regiments. Thirdly, seeing that most Parliamentarians wanted to restore the King without major democratic reforms or religious freedom.^[b]

Two representatives, called Agitators, were elected from each regiment. The Agitators, with two officers from each regiment and the Generals, formed a new body called theArmy Council. At a meeting ("rendezvous") held nearNewmarket, Suffolk on 4 June 1647, this council issued "ASolemne Engagement of the Army, under the Command of his Excellency Sir Thomas Fairfax" to Parliament on 8 June making their concerns known.^[47]

Having come into contact with ideas from the radical movement called theLevellers, the troops of the Army proposed a revolutionary new constitution named theAgreement of the People, which called for almost universal male suffrage, electoral boundary reform, power to rest with a Parliament elected by the people every two years, religious freedom, and an end to imprisonment for debt.^[48]

Increasingly concerned at the failure to pay their wages and by political manoeuvrings by King Charles I and by some in Parliament, the army marched slowly towards London over the next few months. In late October and early November at thePutney Debates, the Army debated two different proposals. The first was theAgreement of the People; the other was theHeads of Proposals, put forward by Henry Ireton for the Army Council.^[49]

The army remained under control and intact, so it was able to take the field when theSecond English Civil War broke out in July 1648. The New Model Army routed English royalist insurrections inSurrey andKent, and inWales, before crushing a Scottish invasion force at theBattle of Preston in August.^[50]

Many of the Army's radicals now called for the execution of the King, whom they called "Charles Stuart, that man of blood". The majority of the Grandees realised that they could neither negotiate a settlement with Charles I, nor trust him to refrain from raising another army to attack them, so they came reluctantly to the same conclusion as the radicals: they would have to execute him. After the Long Parliament rejected the Army'sRemonstrance^[c] by 125 to 58, the Grandees decided to reconstitute Parliament so that it would agree with the Army's position. On 6 December 1648, ColonelThomas Pride institutedPride's Purge and forcibly removed from the House of Commons all those who were not supporters of thereligious independents and the Grandees in the Army. The much-reducedRump Parliament passed the necessary legislation to try Charles I. He was found guilty of high treason by the59 Commissioners andbeheaded on 30 January 1649.^[51]

During 1649, there were three mutinies over pay and political demands. The first involved 300 infantrymen of ColonelJohn Hewson's regiment, who declared that they would not serve in Ireland until the Levellers' programme had been realised. They were cashiered without arrears of pay, which was the threat that had been used to quell the mutiny at the Corkbush Field rendezvous.^[52]

In theBishopsgate mutiny, soldiers of the regiment of ColonelEdward Whalley stationed inBishopsgate, in London, made demands similar to those of Hewson's regiment. They were ordered out of London.^[52]

Less than two weeks later, there was a larger mutiny involving several regiments over pay and political demands. After the resolution of the pay issue, theBanbury mutineers, consisting of 400 soldiers with Leveller sympathies under the command of CaptainWilliam Thompson, continued to negotiate for their political demands. They set out forSalisbury in the hope of rallying support from the regiments billeted there. Cromwell launched a night attack on 13 May, in which several mutineers perished, but Captain Thompson escaped, only to be killed in another skirmish near theDiggers community atWellingborough. The rest were imprisoned inBurford Church until three were shot in the Churchyard on 17 May.^[53]

Later that year, on 15 August 1649, the New Model Army landed in Ireland to start theCromwellian conquest of Ireland. At Kilkenny, in March 1650, the town's defenders skilfully beat back numerous Parliamentarian assaults before being forced to surrender.^[56] Shortly afterwards, about 2,000 soldiers of the New Model died in abortive assaults against a breach defended by veteran Ulstermen in thesiege of Clonmel. These bloody scenes were repeated during thesiege of Charlemont Fort later that year.^[57]

The Army was also constantly at risk of attack by Irish guerrillas calledtóraithe ("tories" in English), literally meaning "pursuer".^[58]

Overall, around 43,000 English soldiers fought in the Parliamentarian army in Ireland between 1649 and 1653. In addition, some 9,000 Irish Protestants also served.^[59]

The Army generally performed well when storming fortifications, for example at thesiege of Drogheda, but paid a heavy price atClonmel when Cromwell ordered them to attack a well-defended breach.^[43]

In 1650, while the campaign in Ireland was still continuing, part of the New Model Army was transferred to Scotland to fight ScottishCovenanters at the start of theThird English Civil War. The Covenanters, who had been allied to the Parliament in the First English Civil War, had now crownedCharles II as King. Despite being outnumbered, Cromwell led the Army to crushing victories over the Scots at the battles ofDunbar andInverkeithing. Following the Scottish invasion of England led by Charles II, the New Model Army and local militia forces soundly defeated the Royalists at theBattle of Worcester, the lastpitched battle of the English Civil Wars.^[60]

In England, the New Model Army was involved in numerous skirmishes with a range of opponents, but these were little more than policing actions. The largest rebellion ofthe Protectorate took place when theSealed Knot instigated an insurrection in 1655.^[61]

The major foreign entanglement of this period was theAnglo-Spanish War. In 1654, the English Commonwealth declared war on Spain, and regiments of the New Model Army were sent to conquer the Spanish colony ofHispaniola in the Caribbean. They failed in the conflict and sustained heavy casualties from tropical disease. They took over the lightly defended island ofJamaica. The English troops performed better in the European theatre of the war inFlanders. During theBattle of the Dunes (1658), as part ofTurenne's army, the red-coats of the New Model Army under the leadership of SirWilliam Lockhart, Cromwell's ambassador at Paris, astonished both their French allies and Spanish enemies by the stubborn fierceness with which they advanced against a strongly defended sandhill 50 metres (160 ft) high.^[62]

After Cromwell died,the Protectorate died a slow death, as did the New Model Army. For a time, in 1659, it appeared that factions of the New Model army forces loyal to different generals might wage war on each other. Regiments garrisoned in Scotland under the command of General Monck were marched to London to ensure the security of the capital prior to theRestoration, without significant opposition from the regiments under other generals, particularly those led byCharles Fleetwood andJohn Lambert. Following the riots led byThomas Venner in 1661, which were quelled with the aid of soldiers from Monck's Regiment of Foot and the Regiment of Cuirassiers, the New Model Army was ordered disbanded, with the large arrears of pay financed by apoll tax. Monck's Regiment of Foot, upon the end of the New Model Army, was incorporated into the army ofCharles II as theColdstream Guards.^[63]

Some of the demobilised soldiers and officers of the New Model Army were sent to Portugal, to support thePortuguese Restoration War and help Portugal regain its independence after many decades of Spanish rule. The British brigade, which numbered 3,000, arrived in Portugal in August 1662^[64] and proved a decisive factor in winning back Portugal's independence,^[65] defeating the Spanish in a major engagement atAmeixial on 8 June 1663, and forcing John of Austria to abandon Évora and retreat across the border with heavy losses.^[66]

• Robert Blake (admiral) for developments in the Navy at the time
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