TheNew Jersey Pine Barrens, also known as thePinelands or simply thePines, is the largest remaining example of theAtlantic coastal pine barrens ecosystem, stretching across more than seven counties ofNew Jersey. Two other large, contiguous examples of this ecosystem remain in thenortheastern United States: theLong Island Central Pine Barrens and theMassachusetts Coastal Pine Barrens. The namepine barrens refers to the area's sandy, acidic, nutrient-poor soil. Although European settlers could not cultivate their familiar crops there, the unique ecology of the Pine Barrens supports a diverse spectrum of plant life, includingorchids andcarnivorous plants. The area is also notable for its populations of rare pygmypitch pines and other plant species that depend on the frequent fires of the Pine Barrens to reproduce. The sand that composes much of the area's soil is referred to by the locals assugar sand.
The Pine Barrens remains mostly rural and undisturbed despite its proximity to thesprawling metropolitan cities ofPhiladelphia andNew York City, in the center of the very densely populatedBoston-Washington Corridor on theEastern Seaboard. The heavily traveledGarden State Parkway andAtlantic City Expressway traverse sections of the eastern and southern Pine Barrens, respectively. The Pine Barrens territory helps recharge the 17-trillion-US-gallon (64-billion-cubic-metre)Kirkwood–Cohansey aquifer, containing some of the purest water in the United States.[1][2]
As a result of all these factors, in 1978, Congress passed legislation to designate 1.1 million acres (4,500 km2; 1,700 sq mi) of the Pine Barrens as thePinelands National Reserve (the nation's first National Reserve) to preserve its ecology. A decade later, it was designated by theUnited Nations as anInternational Biosphere Reserve. Development in the Pinelands National Reserve is strictly controlled by an independent state/federal agency, theNew Jersey Pinelands Commission.
The Pinelands Reserve contains theWharton,Brendan T. Byrne (formerly Lebanon),Penn, andBass River state forests. The reserve also includes twoNational Wild and Scenic Rivers: theMaurice[3] and theGreat Egg Harbor.[4]
John McPhee's 1967 bookThe Pine Barrens focuses on the history and ecology of the region.
Between 170–200 million years ago, theAtlantic coastal plain began to form.
The Barrens formed in the southernmost and newest land area in New Jersey 1.8 to 65 million years ago, during theTertiary era.
Over millions of years, the rising and falling of the coastline deposited minerals underground, culminating with the end of the lastice age about 12,000 years ago, when plants and trees began growing in what is nowNew Jersey.
Forest fires have been a common occurrence since before habitation by humans. Fire has played a major ecological role in the Pinelands, and the ecotypes "suggest that short fire intervals may have been typical in the Pine Plains for many centuries, or millennia."[5]
Around 10,000 years ago, the ancestors of theLenape people first inhabited the Pine Barrens.[citation needed]
Thefire regime before European settlement is poorly understood.[5] Scholars know that the Lenape tribes burned the woods in the spring and fall to reduce underbrush and improve plant yields and hunting conditions.[6] The Pine Barrens, with its sandy soil, did not attract a permanent agriculture population (whose main interest would have been to establish permanent boundaries and clear the forests for fields).[7] The area's sparse population encouraged a long-lasting attitude that forest fires should be set for local benefit—even on the lands of others. For instance, it was profitable for charcoal burners to set fires deliberately, in order to make the trees useless for any purpose other than charcoal making, then purchase the trees for a discount.[7][dubious –discuss]
During the 17th century, the area that is now New Jersey was explored and settled by theSwedish andDutch, who developed whaling and fishing settlements mainly along the Delaware River. The English claimed the area as of 1606 under theirLondon Company, and the Dutch abandoned their claim to the English in 1664. The firstshipbuilding operations began in the Pine Barrens in 1688, utilizing thecedar,oak, andpitch trees, as well as local tar and turpentine. The firstsawmills andgristmills opened around 1700, leading to the first European settlements in the Pinelands.[8][9]
During the colonial era, the Pine Barrens was the location of various industries.[10] In 1740,charcoal operations began in the Pine Barrens, and the firstiron furnace opened in 1765.[9]Bog iron was mined from bogs, streams, and waterways, and was worked in about 35 furnaces[11] includingBatsto,Lake Atsion, Hampton Furnace inShamong,[10] Hanover Furnace inPemberton,[12] Ferrago inLacey, and several other locations.[13] Iron from these early furnaces was instrumental in supplying the American military with weapons and camp tools during theAmerican Revolution, theWar of 1812, and theSecond Barbary War. For example, CommodoreStephen Decatur Jr. sailed to Algiers armed with24-pound cannons that had been cast at Hanover in 1814.[14]
The firstIndian reservation in the Americas was founded Brotherton in 1758, in what is nowIndian Mills inShamong Township. On October 6, 1778 during theAmerican Revolutionary War, 400 British troops underPatrick Ferguson fought an American force underCasimir Pulaski at theBattle of Chestnut Neck before burning several local buildings. In 1799, the firstglassworks opened in Port Elizabeth, and by that time, whaling operations had stopped. The firstcotton mill in the Pine Barrens opened in 1810 atRetreat. Cultivatedcranberry bogs begin in the 1830s, and in 1832, the first paper mill opened in the region. In 1854, the first railroad across the Pinelands opened, connectingCamden and the newly-establishedAtlantic City. Railroads soon connected the various small towns that existed across the Pine Barrens.[9]
In 1869, the bog iron industry ended in the Pine Barrens,[9] after the discovery that iron ore could be mined more cheaply inPennsylvania. Other industries such as paper mills, sawmills, and gristmills rose and fell throughout the years, catering chiefly to local markets. Smaller industries such as charcoal-making and glassmaking also were developed, meeting with varying degrees of success. Over time, however, the forest reclaimed almost all traces of the Pine Barrens' industrial past.Ghost towns—remnants of villages built around these former industries—can still be found at various locations.Batsto Village has been restored to its mid-19th century state as a state historic site.[citation needed]
The Pine Barrens were home to many rural, backwoods families. For years, residents of the rural area were called "Pineys" by outsiders, as a derogatory term. Today many Pinelands residents are proud of both the name and the land on which they live.[15] In the early 20th century, a family identified in acase study by the pseudonym, theKallikaks, were presented as an example of genetic inferiority byeugenicists.[16]
On July 12, 1928, the Mexican aviator and national heroEmilio Carranza crashed and was killed inTabernacle, New Jersey, while returning from a historic goodwill flight fromMexico City to the United States. Flying back from Long Island, he encountered athunderstorm and crashed inBurlington County. A 12 ft (3.6 m) monument identifies the location of the crash.[citation needed]
Despite rapid urbanization of surrounding areas, the Pine Barrens remained largely untouched because its sandy soil was unsuitable for growing most crops. Its iron and charcoal deposits did not compete with more readily accessible deposits elsewhere. In 1969, the Pine Barrens averaged a density of 15 inhabitants per square mile (5.8/km2), compared with 1,000 inhabitants per square mile (390/km2) in the lands bordering it. With rising environmental concerns at the time, people became alerted to the possible destruction of the Pine Barrens and its aquifer byurban sprawl.[citation needed]
State authorities in the region discussed plans to construct a jetport and associated city in the Pine Barrens to alleviate congestion at other major regional airports of the Mid-Atlantic. The low cost of land and lower incidence of fog in the area made the plan appealing.[17]
Congress created theNew Jersey Pinelands National Reserve, the country's first National Reserve, to protect the area under the National Parks and Recreation Act of 1978.
The surviving Medford office ofDr. James Still, the 19th century "Black Doctor of the Pines", was purchased for preservation by the State of New Jersey in 2006. Today it is the Dr. James Still Historic Office Site and Education Center.[18]
The reserve containsWharton State Forest,Brendan T. Byrne State Forest,Bass River State Forest, andPenn State Forest.[19] The Pinelands was designated a U.S.Biosphere Reserve byUNESCO in 1983 and an International Biosphere Reserve in 1988.[20]
Howard P. Boyd was instrumental in working to preserve the Pine Barrens and educate visitors. He died in December 2011, within the Protection Area of thePinelands National Reserve.[21]
The Pine Barrens gave rise to the legend of theJersey Devil, said to have been born in 1735 to a local woman named Mrs. Leeds in an area known asLeeds Point. It was said that he was her 13th child and, because of the unlucky number, he was cursed. Another story says that the mother gave birth to a hideous monster that attacked her and her nurses, before flying up and out of the chimney and disappearing into the Barrens.[22] The Devil is said to roam the Pine Barrens, with many sharing stories of encounters with the Devil during dark nights in the Pinelands.[23]
Pine Barrens folklore also includes the ghost of the "Black Doctor", the ghost ofCaptain Kidd, the "Black Dog", and various other ghosts, as well as folklore associated with theBlue Hole and other so-called "blue holes" in the Pine Barrens.
The New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve contains approximately 1.1 million acres (4,500 km2) of land, and occupies 22% of New Jersey's land area, including territory of much of seven counties. Counties affected by the act areAtlantic,Burlington,Camden,Cape May,Cumberland,Gloucester andOcean.The Pine Barrens comprise a major part of theAtlantic coastal pine barrensecoregion.
Although natural fires have occurred, evidence shows that most fires in the region are of human origin.[7]
The Pine Barrens of New Jersey are in the transition zone betweenhumid subtropical andhumid continental climates. The Pine Barrens, however, have a microclimate that allows for a shorter frost-free season, and colder nighttime temperatures compared to most of New Jersey. Because of sandy soil and very little development, clear and calm nights can get much colder in the Pine Barrens than in the surrounding areas. On an average night, a 6 to 8 °F (3.3 to 4.4 °C) difference is commonly seen, but the change can be as much as 10 °F (5.6 °C).[24]
The Pine Barrens receives annual snowfall, varying from 15 to 21 inches (380 to 530 mm) throughout the Pinelands (the northern pinelands receive the most snowfall, on average).[25] Summers are typically hot and humid, and winters are typically cold, and fall/spring are milder transition seasons. Frost can be seen in fall, spring, and winter. In the Pine Barrens, frost occurs earlier in the fall and later in the spring than the surrounding areas due to the sandy soil.[24]
The average annual precipitation in the Pinelands is from 42 to 46 inches (1,100 to 1,200 mm), but year-to-year precipitation varies greatly. Thunderstorms are frequent in the warmer months, along with strong winds and heavy rains from these storms.[26]
| Climate data for 7 mi NNE Batsto Village, Wharton State Forest, Burlington County, NJ (1981 – 2010 averages). | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Mean daily maximum °F (°C) | 42.1 (5.6) | 45.3 (7.4) | 52.9 (11.6) | 64.1 (17.8) | 73.9 (23.3) | 82.5 (28.1) | 86.6 (30.3) | 85.2 (29.6) | 78.8 (26.0) | 67.8 (19.9) | 57.4 (14.1) | 46.3 (7.9) | 65.3 (18.5) |
| Daily mean °F (°C) | 32.7 (0.4) | 35.2 (1.8) | 42.2 (5.7) | 52.4 (11.3) | 62.0 (16.7) | 71.2 (21.8) | 75.8 (24.3) | 74.3 (23.5) | 67.4 (19.7) | 56.0 (13.3) | 46.8 (8.2) | 36.9 (2.7) | 54.5 (12.5) |
| Mean daily minimum °F (°C) | 23.4 (−4.8) | 25.1 (−3.8) | 31.6 (−0.2) | 40.8 (4.9) | 50.1 (10.1) | 59.8 (15.4) | 65.0 (18.3) | 63.4 (17.4) | 56.0 (13.3) | 44.3 (6.8) | 36.1 (2.3) | 27.5 (−2.5) | 43.7 (6.5) |
| Averageprecipitation inches (mm) | 3.50 (89) | 2.82 (72) | 4.40 (112) | 3.94 (100) | 3.92 (100) | 3.82 (97) | 4.38 (111) | 4.43 (113) | 3.80 (97) | 3.51 (89) | 3.45 (88) | 3.84 (98) | 45.81 (1,166) |
| Averagerelative humidity (%) | 64.7 | 62.1 | 59.0 | 58.8 | 62.9 | 67.3 | 68.3 | 70.5 | 71.1 | 69.6 | 67.5 | 67.4 | 65.8 |
| Source: PRISM Climate Group[27] | |||||||||||||
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AverageDew Point °F | 22.1 | 23.5 | 28.9 | 38.4 | 49.2 | 59.8 | 64.6 | 64.1 | 57.7 | 46.2 | 36.6 | 27.1 | 43.3 |
| AverageDew Point °C | 0.4 | 1.8 | 5.7 | 11.3 | 16.7 | 21.8 | 24.3 | 23.5 | 19.7 | 13.3 | 8.2 | 2.7 | 12.5 |
Source = PRISM Climate Group[27] | |||||||||||||
The New Jersey Pine Barrens is one of the most ecologically distinctive regions in the northeastern United States, characterized by its nutrient-poor, sandy soils, extensive forests of pitch pine and oak, and a high concentration of rare and endangered species. It forms the core of theNew Jersey Pinelands National Reserve, the first national reserve in the United States, established to protect its unique ecological and cultural landscape.
The Pine Barrens is home to at least 850 species of plants,[28] of which 92 are considered threatened and endangered.[29] Several species oforchids, including thepink lady's slipper, are native to the Pine Barrens.[30] The region hosts more than 20 species of wild berries, includingwild raisin,red chokeberry,highbush blueberry,huckleberry,bearberry, and cranberry.[31]
The forest communities are strongly influenced by fire, varying fromdwarf pine forests less than 4 feet (120 cm) tall where fires are frequent, to pine forests, to oak forests where fires are rare. Dark swamps ofAtlantic white cedar grow along the waterways.[citation needed]
Forest fires play an important role in regulating the growth of plants in the Pine Barrens. Frequent light fires tend to reduce the amount of undergrowth and promote the growth of mature trees. Forest fires have contributed to the dominance ofpitch pine in the Pine Barrens. They can resist and recover quickly from fire by resprouting directly through their bark, an unusual trait among pines.[32] Theirserotinous pine cones open only after having been heated by a fire.[7][33] Pitch pines also grow serotinous cones that open after being exposed to fire.[34] As such, frequent killing fires keep an area covered with small sprouts.[32]
Periodic wildfires prevent succession into oak-dominated forests. Controlled burns are used as a conservation tool to maintain habitat diversity, reduce fuel loads, and support rare species dependent on open-canopy conditions.[35]
Efforts to battle forest fire attract debate over how to best preserve the Pine Barrens. While fires constitute a danger to property and inhabitants, preservationists argue that eliminating forest fires would cause the Pine Barrens to become dominated by oak trees. A few areas which had previously consisted of scrub and pitch pine have become dominated by oak trees because of intervention after settlement to reduce the frequency of forest fires.[36]
A distinct plant community consists of pygmy pine plains, a dwarf forest found on especially nutrient-poor, dry soils. Trees here rarely exceed a few feet in height due to fire, wind, and poor soil.[37]
The Pine Barrens is home to at least 39 species ofmammals, over 300 species of birds, 59reptile andamphibian species, and 91 fish species.[38] At least 43 species are considered threatened and endangered by the NJ Division of Fish and Wildlife,[39] including the rare easterntimber rattlesnakes (Crotalus horridus) andbald eagles.[40]
American black bears are finding their way back into the Pine Barrens after a history of hunting and trapping had driven them out.[41]
Believed to have beenextirpated from the state by 1970 due to destruction of its territory and human encroachment, thebobcat gained legal protection in 1972. It is classified as a game species with a closed season; in 1991 it was added to the list of endangered species in New Jersey. Between 1978 and 1982, the state introduced 24 bobcats from Maine into the northern portion of the state. Since 1996, they have been monitored by biologists with the aid ofGPS transmitters in order to determine habitat ranges and preferences.[42]
A scent-post survey in 1995 proved bobcat presence in four northern counties. There have been reliable sightings of the bobcat in nine additional (mostly southern) counties, including those encompassing large swathes of the Pine Barrens and others skirting it, namely:Atlantic,Burlington,Cape May,Cumberland,Ocean, andSalem counties.[43]
Bird life is abundant and includes red-headed woodpeckers, barred owls, and threatened species such as the bald eagle and red-shouldered hawk. Seasonal migrations also bring a diversity of warblers and other songbirds.[citation needed]
A threatened species of frog, thePine Barrens tree frog, has a disjunct population there.[44][45]
Beneath the Pine Barrens lies theKirkwood-Cohansey aquifer, an underground freshwater system estimated to hold over 17 trillion gallons of water. The aquifer feeds thousands of acres of wetlands, cranberry bogs, and rare habitat types such as vernal pools and Atlantic white cedar swamps.[46]
The integrity of the aquifer and associated wetlands is essential to both the ecology and the economy of the region, especially for water-dependent agriculture like cranberries and blueberries.[citation needed]
Much of the Pine Barrens is protected under thePinelands Protection Act (1979) and managed by theNew Jersey Pinelands Commission. The region has also been designated aUnited States Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO due to its ecological significance. Ongoing conservation challenges include sprawl from urban development, illegal off-road vehicle use, and climate-related changes in fire and hydrology.
Conservation groups such as thePinelands Preservation Alliance, local land trusts, and state and federal agencies actively manage and monitor the region to safeguard its biological and cultural resources.
Industries in the Pine Barrens are primarily related to agriculture and tourism, though historically the region supported a number of extractive and manufacturing industries rooted in its natural resources.
New Jersey produces the third-highest number ofcranberries in the country, mostly cultivated in the areas aroundChatsworth, includingWhitesbog. The first cultivatedblueberries were developed in the Pine Barrens in 1916 through the work ofElizabeth White of Whitesbog, and blueberry farms are nearly as common as cranberrybogs in the area. Most blueberry farms are found in and around the town ofHammonton, which is often called the "Blueberry Capital of the World."[47]
Tourism is also a vital part of the regional economy. Visitors are drawn to the area's extensive hiking and canoe trails, historic villages, and farm-based attractions. Agritourism, such as cranberry and blueberry festivals, "pick-your-own" farms, and farm stands, helps sustain rural economies. Events like Hammonton's Red, White, and Blueberry Festival are major annual attractions.[48]
Prior to the rise of modern agriculture and tourism, the Pine Barrens supported a range of industries based on its natural environment:
During the 18th and early 19th centuries, the Pine Barrens was a significant center for bog iron production. Ironworks such asBatsto Village andAtsion smelted iron from the bogs using charcoal from local forests. This iron was used for domestic goods and Revolutionary War munitions.[49]
The dense pine forests provided abundant wood for charcoal, which fueled furnaces throughout the region. In addition, the sand of the Pine Barrens was suitable for glassmaking. Towns such asWeymouth andAlloway hosted small glass factories during the 19th century.[50]
Swamps in the Pine Barrens were rich in Atlantic white cedar. This rot-resistant wood was highly prized for shingles, barrels, and shipbuilding. Logging camps and sawmills operated throughout the region until cedar stands were largely depleted by the early 20th century.[51]
Pine trees in the region were also tapped for pitch, tar, turpentine, and rosin—essential materials for shipbuilding and other industries before petroleum-based substitutes became common. Workers known as "naval storesmen" processed these materials in small, seasonal camps scattered through the woods.[52]
While these industries have largely vanished, their legacy remains in the many ghost towns and ruins scattered across the Pinelands.
The state Pinelands Protection Act of 1979 set goals of preserving farms and undeveloped lands, discouragingpiecemeal and scattered development and conserving animal and plant species on the sandy soils of the Kirkwood-Cohansey Aquifer, estimated to hold 17.7 trillion gallons of water.
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