Inlinguistics, aneologism (/niˈɒlədʒɪzəm/,/ˌniːoʊˈloʊ-/;[1] also known as acoinage) is any newly formed word, term, or phrase that has gained popular or institutional recognition and is becoming accepted into mainstream language.[2]
Neologisms are one facet oflexical innovation, i.e., the linguistic process of new terms and meanings entering a language'slexicon. The most precise studies intolanguage change andword formation, in fact, identify the process of a "neological continuum": anonce word is any single-use term that may or may not grow in popularity; aprotologism is such a term used exclusively within a small group; aprelogism is such a term that is gaining usage but is still not mainstream; and aneologism has become accepted or recognized by social institutions.[3][4]
Neologisms are often formed by combining existing words (seecompound noun and adjective) or by giving words new and uniquesuffixes orprefixes.[9] Neologisms can also be formed byblending words, for example, "brunch" is a blend of the words "breakfast" and "lunch", or throughabbreviation oracronym, by intentionallyrhyming with existing words or simply through playing with sounds. A relatively rare form of neologism is when proper names are used as words (e.g.,boycott, fromCharles Boycott), includingguy,dick,Chad, andKaren.[9]
Neologisms can become popular throughmemetics, throughmass media, theInternet, andword of mouth, including academic discourse in many fields renowned for their use of distinctivejargon, and often become accepted parts of the language. Other times, they disappear from common use just as readily as they appeared. Whether a neologism continues as part of the language depends on many factors, probably the most important of which is acceptance by the public. It is unusual for a word to gain popularity if it does not clearly resemble other words.
The term "neologism" is first attested in English in 1772, borrowed from the French "néologisme" (1734).[10] The French word derives from theGreekνέο (néo), meaning "new", andλόγος (lógos), meaning "speech, utterance".
In an academic sense, there are no professional neologists, because the study of such things (e.g., of cultural or ethnic vernacular) isinterdisciplinary. Anyone such as alexicographer or anetymologist might study neologisms, how their uses span the scope of human expression, and how, due to science and technology, they now spread more rapidly than ever.[11]
The term "neologism" also has a broader meaning, of "a word which has gained anew meaning".[12][13][14] Sometimes the latter process is called "semantic shifting"[12] or "semantic extension".[15][16] Neologisms are distinct from a person'sidiolect, one's unique patterns of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.
Neologisms are usually introduced when a concept is lacking a term, or when an existing term lacks detail, or when a speaker is unaware of the existing term.[17] The law, governmental bodies, and technology have a relatively high frequency of acquiring neologisms.[18][19] Another motive for the coining of a neologism is to disambiguate a term that has multiple meanings.[20]
The title of a book may become a neologism, for instance,Catch-22 (from the title ofJoseph Heller's novel).[22] Alternatively, the author's name may give rise to the neologism, although the term is sometimes based on only one work of that author. This includes such words as "Orwellian" (fromGeorge Orwell, referring to his dystopian novelNineteen Eighty-Four) and "Kafkaesque" (fromFranz Kafka).
Neologisms are often introduced in technical writing, so-calledFachtexte or 'technical texts' through the process oflexical innovation. Technical subjects such as philosophy, sociology, physics, etc. are especially rich in neologisms. In philosophy, as an example, many terms became introduced into languages through processes of translation, e.g., from Ancient Greek toLatin, or from Latin toGerman orEnglish, and so on. SoPlato introduced the Greek term ποιότης (poiotēs), which Cicero rendered with Latinqualitas, which subsequently became our notion of 'quality' in relation to epistemology, e.g., a quality or attribute of a perceived object, as opposed to its essence. In physics, new terms were introduced sometimes via nonce formation (e.g.,Murray Gell-Man'squark, taken fromJames Joyce) or through derivation (e.g. John vonNeumann'skiloton, coined by combining the common prefixkilo- 'thousand' with the nounton). Neologisms therefore are a vital component of scientificjargon ortermini technici.
Polari is a cant used by some actors, circus performers, and thegay subculture to communicate without outsiders understanding. Some Polari terms have crossed over into mainstream slang, in part through their usage in pop song lyrics and other works. Example include:acdc,barney,blag,butch,camp,khazi,cottaging,hoofer,mince,ogle,scarper,slap,strides,tod,[rough] trade (rough trade).
Verlan (French pronunciation:[vɛʁlɑ̃]), (verlan is the reverse of the expression "l'envers") is a type ofargot in theFrench language, featuring inversion ofsyllables in a word, and is common inslang and youth language. It rests on a long French tradition of transposing syllables of individual words to create slang words.[26]: 50 Someverlan words, such asmeuf ("femme", which means "woman" roughly backwards), have become so commonplace that they have been included in thePetit Larousse.[27] Like any slang, the purpose ofverlan is to create a somewhat secret language that only its speakers can understand. Words becoming mainstream is counterproductive. As a result, such newly common words are re-verlanised: reversed a second time. The commonmeuf becamefeumeu.[28][29]
Neologisms spread mainly through their exposure inmass media. Thegenericizing ofbrand names, such as "coke" forCoca-Cola (or any cola, or any soda in some parts of the United States), "Kleenex" for any brand of facial tissue, andXerox forcopy machines, all spread through their popular use being enhanced by mass media.[30]
However, in some limited cases, words break out of their original communities and spread throughsocial media.[citation needed] "DoggoLingo", a term still below the threshold of a neologism according toMerriam-Webster,[31] is an example of the latter which has specifically spread primarily throughFacebook group andTwitter account use.[31] The suspected origin of this way of referring to dogs stems from a Facebook group founded in 2008 and gaining popularity in 2014 in Australia. In Australian English it is common to usediminutives, often ending in –o, which could be where doggo-lingo was first used.[31] The term has grown so that Merriam-Webster has acknowledged its use but notes the term needs to be found in published, edited work for a longer period of time before it can be deemed a new word, making it the perfect example of a neologism.[31]
InDanish abag-in-box wine is known aspapvin literally meaning "cardboard wine". This neologism was first recorded in 1982.[32]
Because neologisms originate in one language, translations between languages can be difficult.
In the scientific community, where English is the predominant language for published research and studies, like-sounding translations (referred to as 'naturalization') are sometimes used.[33] Alternatively, the English word is used along with a brief explanation of meaning.[33]The four translation methods are emphasized in order to translate neologisms:transliteration,transcription, the use of analogues, andloan translation.[34]
When translating from English to other languages, the naturalization method is most often used.[35] The most common way that professional translators translate neologisms is through thethink aloud protocol (TAP), wherein translators find the most appropriate and natural sounding word through speech.[citation needed] As such, translators can use potential translations in sentences and test them with different structures and syntax. Correct translations fromEnglish for specific purposes into other languages is crucial in various industries and legal systems.[36][37] Inaccurate translations can lead to 'translation asymmetry' or misunderstandings and miscommunication.[37] Many technical glossaries of English translations exist to combat this issue in the medical, judicial, and technological fields.[38]
Inpsychiatry andneuroscience, the termneologism is used to describe words that have meaning only to the person who uses them, independent of their common meaning.[39][40] This can be seen inschizophrenia, where a person may replace a word with a nonsensical one of their own invention (e.g., "I got so angry I picked up a dish and threw it at the gelsinger").[41] The use of neologisms may also be due toaphasia acquired afterbrain damage resulting from astroke orhead injury.[42]
Insocial media, the termneologism is used to describe words made by auser. This can be seen inmemes,user biographies andposts where a person creates a sensical one of their own invention.
^Anderson, James M. (2006). Malmkjær, Kirsten (ed.).The Linguistics Encyclopedia. London:Routledge. p. 601.ISBN0-203-43286-X.
^Gryniuk, D (2015).On Institutionalization and De-Institutionalization of Late 1990s Neologisms. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 150.This process [of lexicalization] does not seem to be coincidental because neologisms themselves are prone to go through certain stages of transformation. They began asunstable creations (otherwise calledprelogisms), that is, they are extremely new, being proposed, or being used only by a small subculture
^Anesa, Patrizia (2018). "Three, 3".Lexical Innovation in World Englishes: Cross-fertilization and Evolving Paradigms. Routledge.
^McDonald, L. J. (2004). The meaning of e- : neologisms as markers of culture and technology.
^Forgue, Guy (1978). "American Neologisms as a Reflection of Cultural Change since 1945".Proceedings of a Symposium on American Literature: 199–211.
^abZuckermann, Ghilʻad (2003).Language contact and lexical enrichment in Israeli Hebrew (2nd ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 3.ISBN978-1403917232.
^Sally Barr EbestWriting from A to Z: the easy-to-use reference handbook 1999 – p. 449 "A neologism is a newly coined word or phrase or a new usage of an existing word or phrase."
^Lynne Bowker, Jennifer PearsonWorking With Specialized Language 2002 p. 214 "Neologisms can also be formed in another way, however, by assigning a new meaning to an existing word."
^Ole Nedergaard ThomsenCompeting models of linguistic change: evolution and beyond 2006 – p. 68 "Extensions, by contrast, are applications of extant means in new usage. Note that since individual speakers differ in their command of their shared tradition of speaking, one person's Extension may be experienced by another as a Neologism"
^Michael D. PiconeAnglicisms, Neologisms and Dynamic French 1996 – p. 3 "Proceeding now to the task of defining terms, I will begin with the more general term 'neologism'. ...A neologism is any new word, morpheme or locution and any new meaning for a pre-existent word, morpheme or locution that appears in a language. ... Likewise, any semantic extension of a pre-existent word, morpheme or locution.. but is also, by accepted definition, a neologism."
^Mesthrie, Rajend (1995).Language and Social History: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics. p. 225.
^Solan, Lawrence (2012).The Oxford Handbook of Language and Law. p. 36.
^Greiffenstern, Sandra (2010).The Influence of Computers, the Internet and Computer-Mediated Communication on Everyday English. p. 125.
^Cowan, Robert. "Shadow of a Doubt: A Phantom Caesura in Horace Odes 4.14." Classical Journal, The 109.4 (2014): 407–417.
^Dunn, Robin. 2003: "The Generative Edge." Foundation 87 (2003): 73–93.
^Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de (2003).The ingenious hidalgo Don Quixote de la Mancha. John Rutherford. New York: Penguin.ISBN0-14-243723-9.OCLC52187865.
^Dickens, Charles (1999).A Christmas carol in prose: a ghost story of Christmas. Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House.ISBN1-56179-746-4.OCLC190824043.
^abLinder, Daniel (2016). "Non-native scientists, research dissemination and English neologisms: What happens in the early stages of reception and re-production?".Iberica.32:35–58.
^Lindblad, Jonathan. 2017. "Translation strategies of H.P. Lovecraft's neologisms into Japanese."Networked Digital Library of Theses & Dissertations
^Liu, Hui (2014). "A Probe Into Translation Strategies of Tech English Neologism in Petroleum Engineering Field".Studies in Literature and Language.9 (1):33–37.
^abKerremans, Koen (2014). "Studying the Dynamics of Understanding and Legal Neologisms within a Linguistically Diverse Judicial Space: The Case of Motherhood in Belgium".International Conference; Meaning in Translation: Illusion of Precision.231:46–52.
^Butterworth, Brian (1979). "Hesitation and the production of verbal paraphasias and neologisms in jargon aphasia".Brain and Language.8 (2):133–161.doi:10.1016/0093-934X(79)90046-4.
