Neoclassicism, also spelledNeo-classicism, emerged as a Westerncultural movement in thedecorative andvisual arts,literature,theatre,music, andarchitecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture ofclassical antiquity. Neoclassicism was born inRome, largely due to the writings ofJohann Joachim Winckelmann during the rediscovery ofPompeii andHerculaneum. Its popularity expanded throughout Europe as a generation of European art students finished theirGrand Tour and returned from Italy to their home countries with newly rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals.[1][2][3][4] The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-centuryAge of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, eventually competing withRomanticism. In architecture, the style endured throughout the 19th, 20th, and into the 21st century.[5][6]
European Neoclassicism in thevisual arts beganc. 1760 in opposition to the then-dominantRococo style.Rococo architecture emphasizes grace,ornamentation and asymmetry; Neoclassical architecture is based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry, which were seen as virtues of the arts ofAncient Rome andAncient Greece, and drawn directly from 16th-centuryRenaissance Classicism. Each "neo"-classicism movement selects some models among the range of possible classics that are available to it, and ignores others. Between 1765 and 1830, Neoclassical proponents—writers, speakers, patrons, collectors, artists and sculptors—paid homage to anidea of the artistic generation associated withPhidias, but sculpture examples they actually embraced were more likely to be Roman copies ofHellenistic sculptures. They ignored bothArchaic Greek art and the works oflate antiquity. The discovery of ancientPalmyra's "Rococo" art through engravings inRobert Wood'sThe Ruins of Palmyra came as a revelation. With Greece largely unexplored and considered a dangerous territory of theOttoman Empire, Neoclassicists' appreciation of Greek architecture was predominantly mediated through drawings andengravings which were subtly smoothed and regularized, "corrected" and "restored" monuments of Greece, not always consciously.
TheEmpire style, a second phase of Neoclassicism in architecture and thedecorative arts, had its cultural centre inParis in theNapoleonic era. Especially in architecture, but also in other fields, Neoclassicism remained a force long after the early 19th century, with periodic waves of revivalism into the 20th and even the 21st centuries, especially in the United States and Russia.[citation needed]
Neoclassicism is a revival of the many styles and spirit of classic antiquity inspired directly from the classical period,[7] which coincided and reflected the developments inphilosophy and other areas of the Age of Enlightenment, and was initially a reaction against the excesses of the precedingRococo style.[8] While the movement is often described as the opposed counterpart ofRomanticism, this is a great over-simplification that tends not to be sustainable when specific artists or works are considered. The case of the supposed main champion of late Neoclassicism,Ingres, demonstrates this especially well.[9] The revival can be traced to the establishment of formalarchaeology.[10][11]
The Italian archaeologist and art theoristGiovanni Pietro Bellori is considered the forerunner of Neoclassicism. In 1664 he delivered a lecture on the ‘Ideal’ in art at theAccademia di San Luca, Rome, which became the seminal statement of idealist art theory.[12] Bellori's lecture had a decisive influence on European academic theory and later became the theoretical basis of the Neoclassicism preached by Winckelmann.[13]
The writings ofJohann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. His booksThoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1750) andGeschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("History of Ancient Art", 1764) were the first to distinguish sharply between Ancient Greek and Roman art, and define periods within Greek art, tracing a trajectory from growth to maturity and then imitation or decadence that continues to have influence to the present day. Winckelmann believed that art should aim at "noble simplicity and calm grandeur",[15] and praised the idealism of Greek art, in which he said we find "not only nature at its most beautiful but also something beyond nature, namely certain ideal forms of its beauty, which, as an ancient interpreter ofPlato teaches us, come from images created by the mind alone". The theory was very far from new in Western art, but his emphasis on close copying of Greek models was: "The only way for us to become great or if this be possible, inimitable, is to imitate the ancients".[16]
TheIndustrial Revolution saw global transition of human economy towards more efficient and stable manufacturing processes.[17] There was tremendous material advancement and increased prosperity.[18] With the advent of theGrand Tour, a fad of collectingantiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe.[19] "Neoclassicism" in each art implies a particular canon of a "classical" model.
In English, the term "Neoclassicism" is used primarily of the visual arts; the similar movement inEnglish literature, which began considerably earlier, is calledAugustan literature. This, which had been dominant for several decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation inFrench literature was similar. In music, the period saw the rise ofclassical music, and "Neoclassicism" is used of20th-century developments. However, the operas ofChristoph Willibald Gluck represented a specifically Neoclassical approach, spelt out in his preface to the published score ofAlceste (1769), which aimed to reform opera by removingornamentation, increasing the role of the chorus in line withGreek tragedy, and using simpler unadorned melodic lines.[20]
The term "Neoclassical" was not invented until the mid-19th century, and at the time the style was described by such terms as "the true style", "reformed" and "revival"; what was regarded as being revived varying considerably. Ancient models were certainly very much involved, but the style could also be regarded as a revival of the Renaissance, and especially in France as a return to the more austere and nobleBaroque of the age ofLouis XIV, for which a considerablenostalgia had developed as France's dominant military and political position started a serious decline.[21]Ingres'scoronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antiqueconsular diptychs and theirCarolingian revival, to the disapproval of critics.
Neoclassicism was strongest inarchitecture,sculpture and thedecorative arts, where classical models in the same medium were relatively numerous and accessible; examples from ancient painting that demonstrated the qualities that Winckelmann's writing found in sculpture were and are lacking. Winckelmann was involved in the dissemination of knowledge of the first large Roman paintings to be discovered, atPompeii andHerculaneum and, like most contemporaries except forGavin Hamilton, was unimpressed by them, citingPliny the Younger's comments on the decline of painting in his period.[22]
As for painting, Greek painting was utterly lost: Neoclassicist painters imaginatively revived it, partly throughbas-relieffriezes,mosaics and pottery painting, and partly through the examples of painting and decoration of theHigh Renaissance ofRaphael's generation, frescos inNero'sDomus Aurea, Pompeii and Herculaneum, and through renewed admiration ofNicolas Poussin. Much "Neoclassical" painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the relative merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann and his fellow Hellenists generally being on the winning side.[23]
It is hard to recapture the radical and exciting nature of early Neoclassical painting for contemporary audiences; it now strikes even those writers favourably inclined to it as "insipid" and "almost entirely uninteresting to us"—some ofKenneth Clark's comments onAnton Raphael Mengs' ambitiousParnassus at theVilla Albani,[35] by the artist whom his friend Winckelmann described as "the greatest artist of his own, and perhaps of later times".[36] The drawings, subsequently turned intoprints, ofJohn Flaxman used very simple line drawing (thought to be the purest classical medium[37]) and figures mostly in profile to depictThe Odyssey and other subjects, and once "fired the artistic youth of Europe" but are now "neglected",[38] while thehistory paintings ofAngelica Kauffman, mainly a portraitist, are described as having "an unctuous softness and tediousness" byFritz Novotny.[39] Rococo frivolity and Baroque movement had been stripped away but many artists struggled to put anything in their place, and in the absence of ancient examples for history painting, other than theGreek vases used by Flaxman,Raphael tended to be used as a substitute model, as Winckelmann recommended.
The work of other artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style, and form part of the history of both movements. The German-Danish painterAsmus Jacob Carstens finished very few of the large mythological works that he planned, leaving mostly drawings and colour studies which often succeed in approaching Winckelmann's prescription of "noble simplicity and calm grandeur".[40] Unlike Carstens' unrealized schemes, theetchings ofGiovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable, and taken back by those making theGrand Tour to all parts of Europe. His main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. The somewhat disquieting atmosphere of many of hisVedute (views) becomes dominant in his series of 16 prints ofCarceri d'invenzione ("Imaginary Prisons") whose "oppressive cyclopean architecture" conveys "dreams of fear and frustration".[41] The Swiss-bornHenry Fuseli spent most of his career in England, and while his fundamental style was based on Neoclassical principles, his subjects and treatment more often reflected the "Gothic" strain ofRomanticism, and sought to evoke drama and excitement.
Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the sensational success ofJacques-Louis David'sOath of the Horatii at theParis Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, which David insisted on painting in Rome. David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. The central perspective is perpendicular to the picture plane, made more emphatic by the dim arcade behind, against which the heroic figures are disposed as in afrieze, with a hint of the artificial lighting and staging ofopera, and the classical colouring ofNicolas Poussin. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after theFrench Revolution became a politician with control of much government patronage in art. He managed to retain his influence in theNapoleonic period, turning to frankly propagandistic works, but had to leave France for exile in Brussels at theBourbon Restoration.[42]
David's many students includedJean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, who saw himself as a classicist throughout his long career, despite a mature style that has an equivocal relationship with the main current of Neoclassicism, and many later diversions intoOrientalism and theTroubadour style that are hard to distinguish from those of his unabashedly Romantic contemporaries, except by the primacy his works always give to drawing. He exhibited at the Salon for over 60 years, from 1802 into the beginnings ofImpressionism, but his style, once formed, changed little.[43]
If Neoclassical painting suffered from a lack of ancient models, Neoclassical sculpture tended to suffer from an excess of them. Although examples of actual Greek sculpture of the "Classical Period" beginning in about 500 BC were then very few; the most highly regarded works were mostly Roman copies.[49] The leading Neoclassical sculptors enjoyed huge reputations in their own day, but are now less regarded, with the exception ofJean-Antoine Houdon, whose work was mainly portraits, very often as busts, which do not sacrifice a strong impression of the sitter's personality to idealism. His style became more classical as his long career continued, and represents a rather smooth progression from Rococo charm to classical dignity. Unlike some Neoclassical sculptors he did not insist on his sitters wearing Roman dress, or being unclothed. He portrayed most of the notable figures of the Enlightenment, and travelled to America to produce astatue of George Washington, as well as busts ofThomas Jefferson,Benjamin Franklin and other founders of the new republic.[50][51]
Antonio Canova and the DaneBertel Thorvaldsen were both based in Rome, and as well as portraits produced many ambitious life-size figures and groups; both represented the strongly idealizing tendency in Neoclassical sculpture. Canova has a lightness and grace, where Thorvaldsen is more severe; the difference is exemplified in their respective groups of theThree Graces.[52] All these, and Flaxman, were still active in the 1820s, and Romanticism was slow to impact sculpture, where versions of Neoclassicism remained the dominant style for most of the 19th century.
An early Neoclassicist in sculpture was the SwedeJohan Tobias Sergel.[53]John Flaxman was also, or mainly, a sculptor, mostly producing severely classical reliefs that are comparable in style to his prints; he also designed and modelled Neoclassical ceramics forJosiah Wedgwood for several years.Johann Gottfried Schadow and his sonRudolph, one of the few Neoclassical sculptors to die young, were the leading German artists,[54] withFranz Anton von Zauner in Austria. The late Baroque Austrian sculptorFranz Xaver Messerschmidt turned to Neoclassicism in mid-career, shortly before he appears to have suffered some kind of mental crisis, after which he retired to the country and devoted himself to the highly distinctive "character heads" of bald figures pulling extreme facial expressions.[55] Like Piranesi'sCarceri, these enjoyed a great revival of interest during the age ofpsychoanalysis in the early 20th century. The Dutch Neoclassical sculptorMathieu Kessels studied with Thorvaldsen and worked almost exclusively in Rome.
Since prior to the 1830s the United States did not have a sculpture tradition of its own, save in the areas of tombstones, weathervanes and ship figureheads,[56] the European Neoclassical manner was adopted there, and it was to hold sway for decades and is exemplified in the sculptures ofHoratio Greenough,Harriet Hosmer,Hiram Powers,Randolph Rogers andWilliam Henry Rinehart.
Neoclassical art was traditional and new, historical and modern, conservative and progressive all at the same time.[58]
Neoclassicism first gained influence in Britain and France, through a generation of French art students trained in Rome and influenced by the writings of Winckelmann, and it was quickly adopted by progressive circles in other countries such asSweden,Poland andRussia. At first, classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms, as in the interiors forCatherine the Great's lover, CountGrigory Orlov, designed by an Italian architect with a team of Italianstuccadori: only the isolated oval medallions like cameos and thebas-relief overdoors hint of Neoclassicism; the furnishings are fully Italian Rococo.
A second Neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied (through the medium ofengravings) and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of theNapoleonic Empire. In France, the first phase of Neoclassicism was expressed in the "Louis XVI style", and the second in the styles called "Directoire" andEmpire. The Rococo style remained popular in Italy until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.[according to whom?]
In the decorative arts, Neoclassicism is exemplified in Empire furniture made in Paris, London, New York, Berlin; inBiedermeier furniture made in Austria; inKarl Friedrich Schinkel's museums in Berlin, SirJohn Soane'sBank of England in London and the newly built "United States Capitol" in Washington, D.C.; and inJosiah Wedgwood'sbas reliefs and "black basaltes"vases. The style was international; Scots architectCharles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine the Great, in St. Petersburg, Russia.
Indoors, Neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries atPompeii andHerculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s,[59] with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution ofLe Antichità di Ercolano (The Antiquities of Herculaneum). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of theBaroque, or the most "Roman" rooms ofWilliam Kent were based onbasilica andtemple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes:pedimented window frames turned intogilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary.
Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in lowfrieze-like relief or painted in monotonesen camaïeu ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts orbucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colors. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, theGoût grec ("Greek style"), not a court style; whenLouis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774,Marie Antoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, brought the Louis XVI style to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen ... seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another".[60]
From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to Neoclassicism, theGreek Revival. At the same time theEmpire style was a more grandiose wave of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule ofNapoleon in the First French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeoisBiedermeier style in the German-speaking lands,Federal style in the United States,[59] theRegency style in Britain, and theNapoleon style in Sweden. According to the art historianHugh Honour "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neoclassical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".[61] An earlier phase of the style was called theAdam style in Great Britain.
Neoclassicism continued to be a major force inacademic art through the 19th century and beyond—a constant antithesis toRomanticism orGothic revivals—although from the late 19th century on, it had often been considered anti-modern, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles.[who?] The centres of several European cities, notably Saint Petersburg andMunich, came to look much like museums of Neoclassical architecture.
Gothic revival architecture (often linked with the Romantic cultural movement), a style originating in the 18th century which grew in popularity throughout the 19th century, contrasted Neoclassicism. Whilst Neoclassicism was characterized by Greek and Roman-influenced styles, geometric lines and order, Gothic revival architecture placed an emphasis on medieval-looking buildings, often made to have a rustic, "romantic" appearance.
Roll-top desk of Marie-Antoinette; byJean-Henri Riesener; 1784; oak and pine frame,sycamore, amaranth and rosewood veneer, bronze gilt; 103.6 x 113.4 cm; Louvre[71]
Writing table of Marie Antoinette; byAdam Weisweiler; 1784; oak, ebony and sycamore veneer, Japanese lacquer, steel, bronze gilt; 73.7 x 81. 2 cm; Louvre[71]
Ewer; 1784–1785; silver; height: 32.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Folding stool (pliant); 1786; carved and painted beechwood, covered in pink silk; 46.4 × 68.6 × 51.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Pair of vases; 1789; hard-paste porcelain, gilt bronze, marble; height (each): 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Armchair (fauteuil) from Louis XVI's Salon des Jeux atSaint-Cloud; 1788; carved and gilded walnut, gold brocaded silk (not original); overall: 100 × 74.9 × 65.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
It marks the transition fromRococo to Classicism. Unlike theClassicism of Louis XIV, which transformed ornaments into symbols, Louis XVI style represents them as realistic and natural as possible, i.e. laurel branches really are laurel branches, roses the same, and so on. One of the main decorative principles is symmetry. In interiors, the colours used are very bright, including white, light grey, bright blue, pink, yellow, very light lilac, and gold. Excesses of ornamentation are avoided.[72] The return to antiquity is synonymous with above all with a return to the straight lines: strict verticals and horizontals were the order of the day. Serpentine ones were no longer tolerated, save for the occasional half circle or oval. Interior decor also honored this taste for rigor, with the result that flat surfaces and right angles returned to fashion. Ornament was used to mediate this severity, but it never interfered with basic lines and always was disposed symmetrically around a central axis. Even so,ébénistes often canted fore-angles to avoid excessive rigidity.[73]
The decorative motifs of Louis XVI style were inspired byantiquity, the Louis XIV style, and nature. Characteristic elements of the style: a torch crossed with a sheath with arrows, imbricated disks,guilloché, double bow-knots, smoking braziers, linear repetitions of small motifs (rosettes, beads, oves),trophy or floral medallions hanging from a knotted ribbon,acanthus leaves,gadrooning, interlace,meanders,cornucopias,mascarons, Ancient urns, tripods, perfume burners, dolphins, ram and lion heads,chimeras, andgryphons. Greco-Roman architectural motifs are also heavily used:flutings,pilasters (fluted and unfluted), fluted balusters (twisted and straight),columns (engaged and unengaged, sometimes replaced bycaryathids),volutecorbels,triglyphs withguttae (inrelief andtrompe-l'œil).[74]
Washstand (athénienne or lavabo); 1800–1814; legs, base and shelf of yew wood,gilt-bronze mounts, iron plate beneath shelf; height: 92.4 cm, width: 49.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Carpet; 1814–1830; 309.9 × 246.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Neoclassicism was representative for the new French society that exited therevolution, setting the tone in all life fields, including art. TheJacquard machine was invented during this period (which revolutionised the entire sewing system, manual until then). One of the dominant colours was red, decorated withgilt bronze. Bright colours were also used, including white, cream, violet, brown, blue, dark red, with little ornaments of gilt bronze. Interior architecture included wood panels decorated with giltreliefs (on a white background or a coloured one). Motifs were placed geometrically. The walls were covered instuccos, wallpaper fabrics.Fireplace mantels were made of white marble, havingcaryatids at their corners, or other elements:obelisks,sphinxes, winged lions, and so on. Bronze objects were placed on their tops, includingmantel clocks. The doors consisted of simple rectangular panels, decorated with a Pompeian-inspired central figure. Empire fabrics are damasks with a blue or brown background, satins with a green, pink or purple background, velvets of the same colors, brooches broached with gold or silver, and cotton fabrics. All of these were used in interiors for curtains, for covering certain furniture, for cushions or upholstery (leather was also used for upholstery).[81]
All Empire ornament is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of theLouis XIV style. Generally, the motifs on a piece's right and left sides correspond to one another in every detail; when they do not, the individual motifs themselves are entirelysymmetrical in composition: antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder, frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics, identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate, etc. LikeLouis XIV,Napoleon had a set of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule, most notably the eagle, the bee, stars, and the initialsI (forImperator) andN (forNapoleon), which were usually inscribed within an imperial laurel crown. Motifs used include: figures ofVictory bearing palm branches, Greek dancers, nude and draped women, figures of antique chariots, wingedputti,mascarons ofApollo,Hermes and theGorgon, swans, lions, the heads of oxen, horses and wild beasts, butterflies, claws, wingedchimeras,sphinxes,bucrania, sea horses, oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons, climbing grape vines, poppyrinceaux,rosettes, palm branches, and laurel. There's a lot of Greco-Roman ones: stiff and flatacanthus leaves,palmettes,cornucopias, beads,amphoras, tripods, imbricated disks,caduceuses ofMercury, vases, helmets, burning torches, winged trumpet players, and ancient musical instruments (tubas, rattles and especiallylyres). Despite their antique derivation, thefluting andtriglyphs so prevalent under Louis XVI are abandoned.Egyptian Revival motifs are especially common at the beginning of the period:scarabs, lotuscapitals, winged disks, obelisks,pyramids, figures wearingnemeses,caryatidsen gaine supported by bare feet and with women Egyptian headdresses.[82]
Neoclassical architecture became widespread as a symbol of wealth and power in Germany, mostly in what was thenPrussia.Karl Friedrich Schinkel built many prominent buildings in this style, including theAltes Museum in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center.
HisBauakademie is considered one of the forerunners of modern architecture due to its hithertofore relatively streamlinedfaçade of the building
Education of the Infant Bacchus; byNiccolò Amastini; first half 19th century; onyx with gold frame; overall (in setting): 6.5 x 4.8 cm;Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
From the second half of the 18th century through the 19th century, Italy went through a great deal of socio-economic changes, several foreign invasions and the turbulent Risorgimento, which resulted inItalian unification in 1861. Thus, Italian art went through a series of minor and major changes in style.
The art ofFrancesco Hayez and especially that of theMacchiaioli represented a break with the classical school, which came to an end as Italy unified (see Italian modern and contemporary art). Neoclassicism was the last Italian-born style, after the Renaissance and Baroque, to spread to all Western Art.
The old building of theUniversity of Bucharest, designed byAlexandru Orăscu and decorated with sculptures byKarl Storck, 1857–1864, bombarded in April or May 1944 during WW2 and partially destroyed, partially rebuilt during the late 1960s[85]
Upper part of a tiled stove in the principals' house of theCentral Girls' School, Bucharest, unknown designer, 1890
During the 19th century, the predominant style inWallachia andMoldavia, later theKingdom of Romania, wasClassicism which lasted for a long time, until the 20th century, although it coexisted in some short periods with other styles. Foreign architects and engineers were invited here since the first decade of the 19th century. Most of the architects that built during the beginning of the century were foreigners because Romanians did not have yet the instruction needed for designing buildings that were very different compared to the Romanian tradition. Usually using Classicism, they started building together with Romanian artisans, usually prepared in foreign schools or academies. Romanian architects studied in Western European schools as well. One example isAlexandru Orăscu, one of the representatives of Neoclassicism in Romania.
Classicism manifested both in religious and secular architecture. A good example of secular architecture is the Știrbei Palace onCalea Victoriei (Bucharest), built around the year 1835, after the plans of French architectMichel Sanjouand. It received a new level in 1882, designed by Austrian architectJoseph Hartmann[87][88]
Teatral'na street (earlier Dvortsova) Kropyvnytskyi
In some Ukrainian cities, the rich architectural heritage of the times of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires has been preserved, reflecting the fact that the Ukrainian ethnic lands for most of history were under control of other states.A vivid example is Teatralna street in the city ofKropyvnytskyi, all buildings of which were built in the 19th century in the neoclassical style by invited European architects.[89][90]
In 1905–1914 Russian architecture passed through a brief but influential period ofNeoclassical revival; the trend began with recreation of Empire style ofAlexandrine period and quickly expanded into a variety of neo-Renaissance,Palladian and modernized, yet recognizably classical schools. They were led by architects born in the 1870s, who reached creative peak before World War I, likeIvan Fomin,Vladimir Shchuko andIvan Zholtovsky. When the economy recovered in the 1920s, these architects and their followers continued working in primarilymodernist environment; some (Zholtovsky) strictly followed the classical canon, others (Fomin, Schuko,Ilya Golosov) developed their own modernized styles.[91]
With the crackdown on architect's independence and official denial of modernism (1932), demonstrated by the international contest for thePalace of Soviets, Neoclassicism was instantly promoted as one of the choices inStalinist architecture, although not the only choice. It coexisted with moderately modernist architecture ofBoris Iofan, bordering with contemporaryArt Deco (Schuko); again, the purest examples of the style were produced by Zholtovsky school that remained an isolated phenomena. The political intervention was a disaster forconstructivist leaders yet was sincerely welcomed by architects of the classical schools.
Neoclassicism was an easy choice for theSoviet Union since it did not rely on modern construction technologies (steel frame orreinforced concrete) and could be reproduced in traditionalmasonry. Thus the designs of Zholtovsky, Fomin and other old masters were easily replicated in remote towns under strict materialrationing. Improvement of construction technology after World War II permitted Stalinist architects to venture into skyscraper construction, although stylistically these skyscrapers (including "exported" architecture ofPalace of Culture and Science, Warsaw and theShanghai International Convention Centre) share little with the classical models. Neoclassicism and neo-Renaissance persisted in less demanding residential and office projects until 1955, whenNikita Khrushchev put an end to expensive Stalinist architecture.
The Adam style was created by two brothers,Adam andJames, who published in 1777 a volume of etchings with interior ornamentation. In the interior decoration made after Robert Adam's drawings, the walls, ceilings, doors, and any other surface, are divided into big panels: rectangular, round, square, withstuccos and Greco-Roman motifs at the edges. Ornaments used includefestoons, pearls,egg-and-dart bands,medallions, and any other motifs used during theClassical antiquity (especially theEtruscan ones). Decorative fittings such as urn-shaped stone vases, gilded silverware, lamps, and stauettes all have the same source of inspiration, classical antiquity. The Adam style emphasizes refined rectangular mirrors, framed like paintings (in frames with stylised leaves), or with apediment above them, supporting an urn or a medallion. Another design of Adam mirrors is shaped like aVenetian window, with a big central mirror between two other thinner and longer ones. Another type of mirrors are the oval ones, usually decorated with festoons. The furniture in this style has a similar structure toLouis XVI furniture.[98]
Besides the Adam style, when it comes to decorative arts, England is also known for the ceramic manufacturerJosiah Wedgwood (1730–1795), who established a pottery called Etruria. Wedgwood ware is made of a material calledjasperware, a hard and fine-grained type ofstoneware. Wedgwood vases are usually decorated with reliefs in two colours, in most cases the figures being white and the background blue.
Armchair; possibly byEphraim Haines; 1805–1815; mahogany and cane; height: 84.77 cm, width: 52.07 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art
Four-column pedestal card table with pineapple finial; 1815–1820; mahogany, tulip poplar, and pine woods; 74.93 x 92.71 x 46.67 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art
On theAmerican continent, architecture and interior decoration have been highly influenced by the styles developed in Europe. The French taste has highly marked its presence in the southern states (after theFrench Revolution some emigrants have moved here, and in Canada a big part of the population has French origins). The practical spirit and the material situation of the Americans at that time gave the interiors a typic atmosphere. All the American furniture, carpets, tableware, ceramic, and silverware, with all the European influences, and sometimesIslamic,Turkish orAsian, were made in conformity with the American norms, taste, and functional requirements. There have existed in the US a period of theQueen Anne style, and aChippendale one. A style of its own, the Federal style, has developed completely in the 18th and early 19th centuries, which has flourished being influenced by Britannic taste. Under the impulse of Neoclassicism, architecture, interiors, and furniture have been created. The style, although it has numerous characteristics which differ from state to state, is unitary. The structures of architecture, interiors, and furniture are Classicist, and incorporateBaroque andRococo influences. The shapes used include rectangles, ovals, and crescents.Stucco or wooden panels on walls and ceilings reproduce Classicist motifs. Furniture tend to be decorated with floralmarquetry and bronze or brass inlays (sometimesgilded).[102]
Kensington Garden dresses for June, fashion plate from Le Beau Monde, 1808
In fashion, Neoclassicism influenced the much greater simplicity of women's dresses, and the long-lasting fashion for white, from well before the French Revolution, but it was not until after it that thorough-going attempts to imitate ancient styles became fashionable in France, at least for women. Classical costumes had long been worn by fashionable ladies posing as some figure from Greek or Roman myth in a portrait (in particular there was a rash of such portraits of the young modelEmma, Lady Hamilton from the 1780s), but such costumes were only worn for the portrait sitting andmasquerade balls until the Revolutionary period, and perhaps, like other exotic styles, as undress at home. But the styles worn in portraits byJuliette Récamier,Joséphine de Beauharnais,Thérésa Tallien and other Parisian trend-setters were for going-out in public as well. Seeing Mme Tallien at the opera,Talleyrand quipped that: "Il n'est pas possible de s'exposer plus somptueusement!" ("One could not be more sumptuously undressed"). In 1788, just before the Revolution, the court portraitistLouise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun had held a Greek supper where the ladies wore plain white Grecian tunics.[104] Shorter classical hairstyles, where possible with curls, were less controversial and very widely adopted, and hair was now uncovered even outdoors; except for evening dress,bonnets or other coverings had typically been worn even indoors before. Thin Greek-style ribbons or fillets were used to tie or decorate the hair instead.
Very light and loose dresses, usually white and often with shockingly bare arms, rose sheer from the ankle to just below the bodice, where there was a strongly emphasized thin hem or tie round the body, often in a different colour. The shape is now often known as theEmpire silhouette although it predates theFirst French Empire of Napoleon, but his first EmpressJoséphine de Beauharnais was influential in spreading it around Europe. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain red but with a decorated border in portraits, helped in colder weather, and was apparently laid around the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favoured.[105] By the start of the 19th century, such styles had spread widely across Europe.
Neoclassical fashion for men was far more problematic, and never really took off other than for hair, where it played an important role in the shorter styles that finally despatched the use of wigs, and then white hair-powder, for younger men. The trouser had been the symbol of the barbarian to the Greeks and Romans, but outside the painter's or, especially, the sculptor's studio, few men were prepared to abandon it. Indeed, the period saw the triumph of the pure trouser, orpantaloon, over theculotte orknee-breeches of theAncien Régime. Even when David designed a new French "national costume" at the request of the government during the height of the Revolutionary enthusiasm for changing everything in 1792, it included fairly tight leggings under a coat that stopped above the knee. A high proportion of well-to-do young men spent much of the key period in military service because of theFrench Revolutionary Wars, and military uniform, which began to emphasize jackets that were short at the front, giving a full view of tight-fitting trousers, was often worn when not on duty, and influenced civilian male styles.
The trouser-problem had been recognised by artists as a barrier to creating contemporaryhistory paintings; like other elements of contemporary dress they were seen as irredeemably ugly and unheroic by many artists and critics. Various stratagems were used to avoid depicting them in modern scenes. InJames Dawkins andRobert Wood Discovering the Ruins ofPalmyra (1758) byGavin Hamilton, the two gentleman antiquaries are shown intoga-like Arab robes. InWatson and the Shark (1778) byJohn Singleton Copley, the main figure could plausibly be shown nude, and the composition is such that of the eight other men shown, only one shows a singlebreeched leg prominently. However the Americans Copley andBenjamin West led the artists who successfully showed that trousers could be used in heroic scenes, with works like West'sThe Death of General Wolfe (1770) and Copley'sThe Death of Major Peirson, 6 January 1781 (1783), although the trouser was still being carefully avoided inThe Raft of the Medusa, completed in 1819.
Classically inspired male hairstyles included theBedford Crop, arguably the precursor of most plain modern male styles, which was invented by the radical politicianFrancis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford as a protest against atax on hair powder; he encouraged his friends to adopt it by betting them they would not. Another influential style (or group of styles) was named by the French "coiffure à la Titus" afterTitus Junius Brutus (not in fact the Roman EmperorTitus as often assumed), with hair short and layered but somewhat piled up on the crown, often with restrained quiffs or locks hanging down; variants are familiar from the hair of bothNapoleon andGeorge IV of the United Kingdom. The style was supposed to have been introduced by the actorFrançois-Joseph Talma, who upstaged his wigged co-actors when appearing in productions of works such asVoltaire'sBrutus (aboutLucius Junius Brutus, who orders the execution of his son Titus). In 1799 a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even bald men were adopting Titus wigs,[106] and the style was also worn by women, theJournal de Paris reporting in 1802 that "more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wigà la Titus.[107]
Neoclassicism in music is a 20th-century movement; in this case it is theClassical andBaroque musical styles of the 17th and 18th centuries, with their fondness for Greek and Roman themes, that were being revived, not the music of the ancient world itself. (The early 20th century had not yet distinguished the Baroque period in music, on which Neoclassical composers mainly drew, from what we now call the Classical period.) The movement was a reaction in the first part of the 20th century to the disintegrating chromaticism of late-Romanticism andImpressionism, emerging in parallel with musical Modernism, which sought to abandon key tonality altogether. It manifested a desire for cleanness and simplicity of style, which allowed for quite dissonant paraphrasing of classical procedures, but sought to blow away the cobwebs of Romanticism and the twilit glimmerings of Impressionism in favour of bold rhythms, assertive harmony and clean-cut sectional forms, coinciding with the vogue for reconstructed "classical" dancing and costume inballet andphysical education.
The 17th–18th century dance suite had had a minor revival beforeWorld War I but the Neoclassicists were not altogether happy with unmodified diatonicism, and tended to emphasise the bright dissonance of suspensions and ornaments, the angular qualities of 17th-century modal harmony and the energetic lines of countrapuntal part-writing.Ottorino Respighi'sAncient Airs and Dances (1917) led the way for the sort of sound to which the Neoclassicists aspired. Although the practice of borrowing musical styles from the past has not been uncommon throughout musical history, art musics have gone through periods where musicians used modern techniques coupled with older forms or harmonies to create new kinds of works. Notable compositional characteristics are: referencing diatonic tonality, conventional forms (dance suites, concerti grossi, sonata forms, etc.), the idea of absolute music untramelled by descriptive or emotive associations, the use of light musical textures, and a conciseness of musical expression. In classical music, this was most notably perceived between the 1920s and the 1950s.Igor Stravinsky is the best-known composer using this style; he effectively began the musical revolution with his Bach-likeOctet for Wind Instruments (1923). A particular individual work that represents this style well isProkofiev'sClassical Symphony No. 1 in D, which is reminiscent of the symphonic style ofHaydn orMozart.Neoclassical ballet as innovated byGeorge Balanchine de-cluttered the Russian Imperial style in terms of costume, steps and narrative, while also introducing technical innovations.
After the middle of the 19th century, Neoclassicism starts to no longer be the main style, being replaced byEclecticism ofClassical styles. ThePalais Garnier in Paris is a good example of this, since despite being predominantly Neoclassical, it features elements and ornaments taken fromBaroque andRenaissance architecture. This practice was frequent in late 19th and early 20th century architecture, beforeWorld War I. Besides Neoclassicism, theBeaux-Arts de Paris well known for this eclecticism of Classical styles.
Pablo Picasso experimented with classicizing motifs in the years immediately following World War I.[110]
In American architecture, Neoclassicism was one expression of theAmerican Renaissance movement,ca. 1890–1917; its last manifestation was inBeaux-Arts architecture, and its final large public projects were theLincoln Memorial (highly criticized at the time), theNational Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. (also heavily criticized by the architectural community as being backward thinking and old fashioned in its design), and theAmerican Museum of Natural History'sRoosevelt Memorial. These were considered stylistic anachronisms when they were finished. In the British Raj, SirEdwin Lutyens' monumental city planning forNew Delhi marks the sunset of Neoclassicism. World War II was to shatter most longing for (and imitation of) a mythical time.
There was an entire 20th-century movement in the non-visual arts which was also called Neoclassicism. It encompassed at least music, philosophy and literature. It was between the end of World War I and the end of World War II. (For information on the musical aspects, see20th-century classical music andNeoclassicism in music. For information on the philosophical aspects, seeGreat Books.)
This literary Neoclassical movement rejected the extreme romanticism of (for example)Dada, in favour of restraint, religion (specifically Christianity) and a reactionary political program. Although the foundations for this movement inEnglish literature were laid byT. E. Hulme, the most famous Neoclassicists wereT. S. Eliot andWyndham Lewis. In Russia, the movement crystallized as early as 1910 under the name ofAcmeism, withAnna Akhmatova andOsip Mandelshtam as the leading representatives.
Dressing table and chair, a reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style; byPaul Follot; 1919; marble and encrusted, lacquered, and gilded wood; unknown dimensions;Musée d'Art Moderne de Paris
Although it started to be seen as 'dated' after WW1, principles, proportions and other Neoclassical elements were not abandoned yet.Art Deco was the dominant style during the interwar period, and it corresponds with the taste of a bourgeois elite for high class French styles of the past, including theLouis XVI,Directoire andEmpire (the period styles of French Neoclassicism). At the same time, the French elite was equally capable of appreciatingModern art, like the works ofPablo Picasso orAmedeo Modigliani. The result of this situation is the early Art Deco style, which uses both new and old elements. ThePalais de Tokyo from 1937 in Paris, byAndré Aubert andMarcel Dastugue, is a good example of this. Although ornaments are not used here, the facade being decorated only withreliefs, the way columns are present here is a strong reminiscence of Neoclassicism. Art Deco design often drew on Neoclassical motifs without expressing them overtly: severe, blockycommodes byÉmile-Jacques Ruhlmann orLouis Süe &André Mare; crisp, extremely low-relief friezes of damsels and gazelles in every medium; fashionable dresses that were draped or cut on the bias to recreate Grecian lines; the art dance ofIsadora Duncan. Conservativemodernist architects such asAuguste Perret in France kept the rhythms and spacing of columnar architecture even in factory buildings.
The oscillation of Art Deco between the use of historic elements, shapes and proportions, and the appetite for 'new', for Modernism, is the result of multiple factors. One of them iseclecticism. The complexity and heterogeneity of Art Deco is largely due to the eclectic spirit. Stylized elements from repertoire of Beaux-Arts, Neoclassicism, or of cultures distant in time and space (Ancient Egypt,Pre-Columbian Americas, or Sub-SaharianAfrican art) are put together with references to Modernist avant-guard artists of the early 20th century (Henri Matisse,Amedeo Modigliani orConstantin Brâncuși). The Art Deco phenomenon owes to academic eclecticism and Neoclassicism mainly the existence of a specific architecture. Without the contribution of the Beaux-Arts trained architects, Art Deco architecture would have remained, with the exception of residential buildings, a collection of decorative objects magnified to an urban scale, like the pavilions of theInternational Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts from 1925, controversial at their time. Another reason for the swinging between historical elements and modernism wasconsumer culture. Objects and buildings in the puritanInternational style, devoid of any ornamentation or citation of the past, were too radical for the general public. In interwar France and England, the spirit of the public and much architectural criticism could not conceive a style totally deprived of ornament, like the International style.
The use of historic styles as sources of inspiration for Art Deco starts as far back as the years before WW1, through the efforts of decorators likeMaurice Dufrêne,Paul Follot,Paul Iribe,André Groult,Léon Jallot orÉmile-Jacques Ruhlmann, who relate to the prestigious French artistic and handicraft tradition of the late 18th and early 19th centuries (the Louis XVI, Directoire andLouis Philippe), and who want to bring a new approach to these styles. The neo-Louis XVI style was really popular in France and Romania in the years before WW1, around 1910, and it heavily influenced multiple early Art Deco designs and buildings. A good example of this is theChâteau de Sept-Saulx inGrand Est, France, byLouis Süe, 1928–1929.[118]
Socialist Realist -Assembly of the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR, Chaired by Kliment Voroshilov; byIsaak Brodsky; 1929; oil on canvas; 95.5 x 129.5 cm; private collection[120]
InFascist Italy,Nazi Germany, Romania under the rule ofCarol II and theSoviet Union, during the 1920s and 1930s, totalitarian regimes chose Neoclassicism for state buildings and art. Architecture was central to totalitarian regimes' expression of their permanence (despite their obvious novelty). The way totalitarian regimes drew from Classicism took many forms. When it comes to state buildings in Italy and Romania, architects attempted to fuse a modern sensibility with abstract classical forms. Two good examples of this are thePalazzo della Civiltà Italiana in Rome, and the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building inBucharest (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46). In contrast, the Classicism of theSoviet Union, known asSocialist Realism, was bombastic, overloaded with ornaments and architectural sculptures, as an attempt to be in contrast with the simplicity of 'Capitalist' or 'bourgeois' styles likeArt Deco orModernism. TheLomonosov University in Moscow is a good example of this.Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader that succeeded Stalin, did not like this pompous Socialist Realist architecture from the reign of his predecessor. Because of the low speed and cost of these Neoclassical buildings, he stated that 'they spent people's money on beauty that no one needs, instead of building simpler, but more'.
In the Soviet Union, Neoclassicism was embraced as a rejection ofArt Deco and Modernism, which the Communists saw as being too 'bourgeois' and 'capitalist'. This Communist Neoclassical style is known as Socialist Realism, and it was popular during the reign of Joseph Stalin (1924–1953). Infine art. Generally, it manifested through deeply idealized representations of wiry workers, shown as heroes in collective farms or industrialized cities, political assemblies, achievements of Soviet technology, and through depictions happy children staying aroundLenin or Stalin. Both subject matter and representation were carefully monitored. Artistic merit was determined by the degree to which a work contributed to the building of socialism. All artists had to join the state-controlled Union of Soviet Artists and produce work in the accepted style. The three guiding principles of Socialist Realism were party loyalty, presentation of correct ideology and accessibility. Realism, more easily understood by the masses, was the style of choice. At the beginning, in the Soviet Union, multiple competingavant-garde movements were present, notablyConstructivism. However, as Stalin consolidated his power towards the end of the 1920s, avant-garde art and architecture were suppressed and eventually outlawed and official state styles were established. AfterBoris Iofan won the competition for the design of thePalace of the Soviets with a stepped classical tower, surmounted by a giant statue of Lenin, architecture soon reverted to pre-Revolutionary styles of art and architecture, untainted by Constructivism's perceived Western influence.[125] Although Socialist Realism in architecture ended more or less with the death of Stalin and the rise of Nikita Khrushchev, paintings in this style continued to be produced, especially in countries where there was a strongpersonality cult of the leader in power, like in the case ofMao Zedong'sChina,Kim Il Sung'sNorth Korea, orNicolae Ceaușescu's Romania.
The Nazis suppressed Germany's vibrantavant-garde culture once they gained control of the government in 1933.Albert Speer was set asAdolf Hitler's architectural advisor in 1934, and he tried to create an architecture that would both reflect the perceived unity of the German people and act as backdrop to the Nazis' expressions of power. The Nazis' approach to architecture was riddled with contradictions: while Hitler and Speer's plans for reordering Berlin aspired to imitate imperial Rome, in rural contexts Nazi buildings took inspiration fromlocal vernaculars, trying to channel an 'authentic' German spirit. When it come to fine art, the Nazis created the term 'Degenerate art' forModern art, a kind of art which to them was 'un-German', 'Jewish' or 'Communist'. The Nazis hated modern art and linked it to 'Cultural Bolshevism', theconspiracy theory that art (or culture broadly) was controlled by a leftist Jewish cabal seeking to destroy the aryan race. Hitler's war on Modern art mostly consisted of an exhibition that tried to discredit Modern artists, called the 'Degenerate Art exhibition' (German:Die Ausstellung "Entartete Kunst"). This exhibition was displayed next to theGreat Exhibition of German Art, which consisted of artworks that the Nazis approved of. This way, the visitors of both exhibitions could compare the art labeled by the regime as 'good' and 'bad'. With a similar attitude, the regime closed in 1931 theBauhaus, an avant-garde art school inDessau that was extremely influential post-war. It reopened in Berlin in 1932, but was closed again in 1933.
In Romania, towards the late 1930s, influenced by the Autocratic tendency of KingCarol II, multiple state buildings were erected. They were Neoclassical, many very similar with what was popular in the same years in Fascist Italy. Examples inBucharest include the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46), the Kretzulescu Apartment Building (Calea Victoriei no. 45), the CFR Building (Bulevardul Dinicu Golescu no. 38) or theVictoria Palace (Piața Victoriei no. 1). TheRoyal Palace, whose interiors are mostly done in a neo-Adam style, stands out by being more decorated, a little closer to the architecture before World War I.
An early text questioningModernism was by architectRobert Venturi,Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966), in which he recommended a revival of the 'presence of the past' in architectural design. He tried to include in his own buildings qualities that he described as 'inclusion, inconsistency, compromise, accommodation, adaptation, superadjacency, equivalence, multiple focus, juxtaposition, or good and bad space.'[139] Robert Venturi's work reflected the broader counter-cultural mood of the 1960s which saw younger generations begin to question and challenge the political, social and racial realities with which they found themselves confronted. This rejection of Modernism is known asPostmodernism. Robert Venturi parodiesLudwig Mies van der Rohe's well-known maxim 'less is more' with 'less is a bore'. During the 1980s and 1990s, somePostmodern architects found a refuge in a sort of Neo-Neoclassicism. Their use of Classicism was not limited only to ornaments, using more or less proportions and other principles too. Post-Modern Classicism had been variously described by some people as 'camp' or 'kitsch'. An architect who has been remarked through Post-Modern Classicism isRicardo Bofill. His work includes two housing projects of titanic scale near Paris, known asLes Arcades du Lac from 1975 to 1981, andLes Espaces d'Abraxas from 1978 to 1983. A building that stands out through its revivalism is theJ. Paul Getty Museum, inMalibu, California, from 1970 to 1975, inspired by the ancient RomanVilla of the Papyri atHerculaneum. The J. Paul Getty Museum is far closer to 19th century Neoclassicism, like thePompejanum inAschaffenburg, Germany, than to Post-Modern Classicism of the 1980s.[140]
After a lull during the period of modern architectural dominance (roughly post-World War II until the mid-1980s), Neoclassicism has seen something of a resurgence.
As of the first decade of the 21st century, contemporary Neoclassical architecture is usually classed under the umbrella term ofNew Classical Architecture. Sometimes it is also referred to as Neo-Historicism or Traditionalism.[142] Also, a number of pieces ofpostmodern architecture draw inspiration from and include explicit references to Neoclassicism,Antigone District and theNational Theatre of Catalonia inBarcelona among them.Postmodern architecture occasionally includes historical elements, like columns, capitals or the tympanum.
For sincere traditional-style architecture that sticks to regional architecture, materials and craftsmanship, the termTraditional Architecture (or vernacular) is mostly used. TheDriehaus Architecture Prize is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st century traditional or classical architecture, and comes with a prize money twice as high as that of the modernistPritzker Prize.[143]
In the United States, various contemporary public buildings are built in Neoclassical style, with the 2006Schermerhorn Symphony Center inNashville being an example.
In Britain, a number of architects are active in the Neoclassical style. Examples of their work include two university libraries:Quinlan Terry's Maitland Robinson Library atDowning College and Robert Adam Architects'Sackler Library.
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^Curl, James Stevens (2013).The Egyptian Revival: Ancient Egypt as the Inspiration for Design Motifs in the West. Routledge. p. 412.ISBN978-1-134-23467-7.
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![A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery; by Joseph Wright of Derby; c.1766; oil on canvas; 1.47 x 2.03 m; Derby Museum and Art Gallery, Derby, England[24]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWright_of_Derby%2c_The_Orrery.jpg)
![The Attributes of the Arts; by Anne Vallayer-Coster; 1769; oil on canvas; 90 x 121 cm; Louvre[25]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAttributs_de_la_peinture%2c_de_la_sculpture_et_de_l%2527architecture_-_Anne_Vallayer-Coster.jpg)
![Ariadne Abandoned; by Angelica Kauffmann; before 1782; oil on canvas; 88 x 70.5 cm; Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden, Germany[26]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKauffmann%2c_Angelica_-_Ariadne_von_Theseus_verlassen_-_prior_to_1782.jpg)
![Oath of the Horatii; by Jacques-Louis David; 1784; oil on canvas; 3.3 x 4.27 m; Louvre[27]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aJacques-Louis_David%2c_Le_Serment_des_Horaces.jpg)
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![Portrait of Jean-Baptiste Belley, Ex-Representative of the Colonies; by Anne-Louis Girodet; 1796–1797; oil on canvas; 1.59 x 1.11 m; Palace of Versailles, France[28]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAnne-Louis_Girodet_De_Roucy-Trioson_-_Portrait_of_J._B._Belley%2c_Deputy_for_Saint-Domingue_-_WGA09508.jpg)
![Cupid and Psyche; by François Gérard; 1798; oil on canvas; 186 x 132 cm; Louvre[29]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aGerard_FrancoisPascalSimon-Cupid_Psyche_end.jpg)
![Portrait of a Black Woman, by Marie-Guillemine Benoist; 1800; oil on canvas; 81 x 65 cm; Louvre[30]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMarie-Guillemine_Benoist_-_portrait_d%2527une_negresse.jpg)
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![Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa; by Antoine-Jean Gros; 1804; oil on canvas; 5.2 x 7.2 m; Louvre[33]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAntoine-Jean_Gros_-_Bonaparte_visitant_les_pestif%25C3%25A9r%25C3%25A9s_de_Jaffa.jpg)
![Portrait of Empress Joséphine; by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon; 1805; oil on canvas; 244 x 179 cm; Louvre[34]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPierre-Paul_Prud%2527hon_001.jpg)
![Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne; by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres; 1806; oil on canvas; 2.62 x 1.62 m; Army Museum (Paris)[27]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIngres%2c_Napoleon_on_his_Imperial_throne.jpg)
![An Arch-Rascal (no. 33 in a character head series); by Franz Xaver Messerschmidt; after 1770; alabaster; height: 38 cm; Österreichische Galerie Belvedere, Vienna, Austria[44]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aFranz_Xaver_Messerschmidt_-_Charakterkopf_03.jpg)
![Mars and Venus; by Johan Tobias Sergel; c.1775; marble; height: 93 cm; Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, Sweden[45]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMars_and_Venus%2c_1804_CE%2c_by_Johan_Tobias_Sergel%2c_Nationalmuseum%2c_Sweden.jpg)
![The Winter; by Jean-Antoine Houdon; 1783; marble; height: 145 cm; Musée Fabre, Montpellier, France[46]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSculpturesMus%25C3%25A9eFabre27b_Houdon_Hiver.jpg)
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![The Princesses Louisa and Friderica of Prussia; by Johann Gottfried Schadow; 1795–1797; marble; height: 172 cm; Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin, Germany[45]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAlte_Nationalgalerie-Schadow-Prinzessinnengruppe_DSC8124.jpg)
![Venus Victrix; by Antonio Canova; 1804–1808; marble; length: 200 cm; Galleria Borghese, Rome[47]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPaolina_Borghese_(Canova).jpg)
![The Three Graces; by Antonio Canova; 1813–1816; marble; height: 1.82 m; Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia[48]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCanova_-_The_Three_Graces%2c_between_1813_and_1816%2c_%25D0%259D.%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA-506.jpg)
![Ganymede and Jupiter; by Bertel Thorvaldsen; 1817; marble; height: 94 cm; Thorvaldsen Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark[45]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aGanymede_Waters_Zeus_as_an_Eagle_by_Thorvaldsen.jpg)
![Central pavilion of the École militaire, Paris, 1752, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel[62]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a%25C3%2589cole_Militaire_Paris_Pavillon_central_depuis_la_cour_d%2527honneur.jpg)
![Panthéon, Paris, by Jacques-Germain Soufflot and Jean-Baptiste Rondelet, 1758–1790[63]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPantheon_1%2c_Paris_May_11%2c_2013.jpg)
![Hôtel de la Marine, Paris, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1761-1770[64]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aL%2527H%25C3%25B4tel_de_la_Marine_(Paris)_(51346237676).jpg)
![Façade of the Petit Trianon, Versailles, France, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[65]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWest_facade_of_Petit_Trianon_002.JPG)
![Staircase of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[65]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aThe_Petit_Trianon_(23935245609).jpg)
![Interior of the Petit Trianon, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[65]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSalon_de_Compagnie_-_Petit_Trianon_(23935437909).jpg)
![Commode of Madame du Barry; by Martin Carlin (attribution); 1772; oak base veneered with pearwood, rosewood and amaranth, soft-paste Sèvres porcelain, bronze gilt, white marble; 87 x 119 cm; Louvre[66]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCommode_de_la_comtesse_du_Barry_(Louvre%2c_OA_11293).jpg)
![Hôtel du Châtelet, Paris, unknown architect, 1776[67]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aH%25C3%25B4tel_du_Ch%25C3%25A2telet_JP2011_fa%25C3%25A7ade_cour.jpg)
![Stairway of the Grand Theater of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France, by Victor Louis, 1777-1780[68]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBordeaux_Grand_Th%25C3%25A9%25C3%25A2tre_R03.jpg)
![Parisian corner cabinet; by Jean Henri Riesener; 1780–1790; oak, mahogany, marble, and ormolu mounts; 94.3 × 81.3 × 55.9 cm; Art Institute of Chicago, US[69]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aJean-henri_riesener%2c_angoliera%2c_1785_ca.jpg)
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![Cabinet Doré of Marie Antoinette at the Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France, by the Rousseau brothers, 1783[70]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCabinet_dore_Marie-Antoinette_Versailles.jpg)
![Roll-top desk of Marie-Antoinette; by Jean-Henri Riesener; 1784; oak and pine frame, sycamore, amaranth and rosewood veneer, bronze gilt; 103.6 x 113.4 cm; Louvre[71]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSecr%25C3%25A9taire_%25C3%25A0_cylindre_de_Marie-Antoinette_(Louvre%2c_OA_5226).jpg)
![Writing table of Marie Antoinette; by Adam Weisweiler; 1784; oak, ebony and sycamore veneer, Japanese lacquer, steel, bronze gilt; 73.7 x 81. 2 cm; Louvre[71]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aTable_%25C3%25A0_%25C3%25A9crire_%25C3%25A0_pupitre_de_Marie-Antoinette_(Louvre%2c_OA_5509).jpg)
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_from_Louis_XVI%2527s_Salon_des_Jeux_at_Saint_Cloud_MET_DP113960.jpg)
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![Astronomical clock; by Philippe-Jacques Corniquet; c.1794; gilt bronze and enamel face; unknown dimensions; Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris[75]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCorniquet_-_horloge_%25C3%25A0_heures_duod%25C3%25A9cimales_et_d%25C3%25A9cimales.jpg)
![Armchair of the salon of Juliette Récamier; attributed to Jacob Frères; c.1798; various types of wood; 84.5 x 62.2 x 62 cm; Louvre[76]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSalon_de_madame_R%25C3%25A9camier_-_Berg%25C3%25A8re_(Louvre%2c_OA_11385).jpg)
![Empress Joséphine's Bedroom in Château de Malmaison, Rueil-Malmaison, France, by Charles Percier and Pierre-François-Léonard Fontaine, 1800-1802[77]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCh%25C3%25A2teau_de_Malmaison%2c_France_(48029730202).jpg)
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![Portico of the Palais Bourbon, Paris, by Bernard Poyet, 1806-1808[78]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPalais_Bourbon%2c_Paris_7e%2c_NW_View_140402_1.jpg)
![La Madeleine, Paris, by Pierre-Alexandre Vignon, 1807-1842[78]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMadeleine_Paris.jpg)
![Vase; 1809; hard-paste porcelain and gilded bronze handles; height: 74.9 cm, diameter: 35.6 cm; Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut, US[79]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPair_of_green_vases%2c_painted_by_Jean_Georget%2c_mounts_by_Pierre-Philippe_Thomire%2c_1_of_2%2c_S%25C3%25A8vres_porcelain%2c_1809%2c_soft-paste_porcelain_-_Wadsworth_Atheneum_-_Hartford%2c_CT_-_DSC05493.jpg)
![King of Rome's Cradle; by Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, Henri Victor Roguier, Jean-Baptiste-Claude Odiot and Pierre-Philippe Thomire; 1811; wood, silver gilt, mother-of-pearl, sheets of copper covered with velvet, silk and tulle, decorated with silver and gold thread; height: 216 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria[80]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAustria-03324_-_Cradle_of_Napoleon%2527s_Son_(32936041295).jpg)
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![Round church of Saint Demetrius, Lețcani, unknown architect, 1795[83]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBiserica_rotunda_Letcani_04.JPG)
![Știrbei Palace (Calea Victoriei no. 107), Bucharest, by Michel Sanjouand, c.1835; with a new level with caryatids added in 1882 by Joseph Hartmann[84]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPalatul_%25C8%2598tirbei%2c_Bucuresti.jpg)
![The old building of the University of Bucharest, designed by Alexandru Orăscu and decorated with sculptures by Karl Storck, 1857–1864, bombarded in April or May 1944 during WW2 and partially destroyed, partially rebuilt during the late 1960s[85]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aThe_University_Building_of_Bucharest%2c_circa_1869%2c_photo_by_Franz_Duschek.jpg)
![Romanian Athenaeum on Calea Victoriei, Bucharest, by Albert Galleron, 1886–1895[86]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aAteneo_Rumano%2c_Bucarest%2c_Ruman%25C3%25ADa%2c_2016-05-29%2c_DD_73.jpg)
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![Kedleston Hall, Kedleston, Derbyshire, England, by Robert Adam, 1760–1770[92]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKedleston_Hall_20080730-06.jpg)
![Eating Room, Osterley Park, London, by Robert Adam, 1761[93]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aOsterley_House_The_Dinning_Room_(22773780472).jpg)
![Syon House, Middlesex, England, by Robert Adam, 1762[92]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSyon_House_(33741948060).jpg)
![The Hall, Osterley Park, by Robert Adam, 1767[94]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aOsterley_House%2c_entrance_hall.jpg)
![Apotheosis of Virgil; by John Flaxman; c.1776; jasperware; diameter: 41 cm; Harris Museum, Preston, Lancashire, UK[95]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aJasperware_plaque_by_Wedgwood_(c._1776)%2c_Harris_Museum.JPG)
![Somerset House, London, by William Chambers, 1776-1801[96]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aSomerset_House_(42160916102).jpg)
![Covered Wedgwood urn; c.1800; jasper ware with relief decoration; overall: 19.7 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio, US[97]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWedgwood_Factory_(British)_-_Covered_Urn_-_1951.301.2_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.jpg)
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![White House, Washington, D.C., by James Hoban, 1792-1829[99]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWhite_House_north_and_south_sides.jpg)
![Capitol Building, Washington, D.C., 1793–1863, by William Thornton and Thomas Ustick Walter[99]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aUS_Capitol_west_side.JPG)
![The Rotunda (University of Virginia), Charlottesville, Virginia, by Thomas Jefferson, 1822-1826[100]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aUniversity_of_Virginia_Rotunda_2006.jpg)
![Brevard-Rice House, Garden District, New Orleans, by James Calrow, 1857[101]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBrevard-Rice_House.jpg)
![Beaux-Arts - Exterior of the Palais Garnier, Paris, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[108]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aParis_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg)
![Beaux-Arts - Grand stairs of the Palais Garnier, by Charles Garnier, 1860–1875[108]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aOpera_Garnier_Grand_Escalier.jpg)
![Beaux-Arts - Grand Central Terminal, New York City, by Reed and Stem and Warren and Wetmore, 1903[109]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aImage-Grand_central_Station_Outside_Night_2.jpg)
![Chest of drawers, a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style; by Clément Mère; 1910; maple, ebony, leather and ivory; 87.5 x 96 x 37 cm; Musée d'Orsay, Paris[111]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aCl%25C3%25A9ment_m%25C3%25A8re%2c_comodino%2c_francia_1910_ca._01.JPG)
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![Hommage à Jean Goujon; by Alfred Janniot; 1919–1924; limestone partially coloured; 220 x 235 x 129 cm; Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon, Portugal[112]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aThe_Gulbenkian_Museum_(40658606370).jpg)
![Embassy of France, Belgrade, Serbia, by Roger-Henri Expert with Josif Najman as assistant, designed in 1926, built in 1939[113][114]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBeograd_-_Ambasada_Francuske_u_Srbiji_(31092842098).jpg)
![Château de Sept-Saulx, Grand Est, a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style, France, by Louis Süe, 1928-1929[115]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPhoto_(50_sur_102).jpg)
![Daily Telegraph Building, London, by Charles Ernest Elcock, after consulting with Thomas S. Tait, 1928[116]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aDaily_Telegraph_Building_(24438959395).jpg)
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![Dumitru Săvulescu House (Bulevardul Dacia no. 73), Bucharest, Romania, by Gheorghe Negoescu, 1933[117]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a73_Bulevardul_Dacia%2c_Bucharest_(01).jpg)
![Grave of the Străjescu Family, Bellu Cemetery, Bucharest, by George Cristinel, 1934[110]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aGrave_of_the_colonel_Paul_Str%25C4%2583jescu_Family_in_the_Bellu_Cemetery_in_Bucharest%2c_Romania_(04).jpg)
![Avenue Foch no. 53, Paris, by Charles Abella, 1939[115]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a53_avenue_Foch_Paris.jpg)
![Socialist Realist - Lenin State Library, Moscow, Russia, by Vladimir Shchuko and Vladimir Helfreich, 1928-1941[119]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMoscow_RussianStateLibrary_0987.jpg)
![Socialist Realist - Assembly of the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR, Chaired by Kliment Voroshilov; by Isaak Brodsky; 1929; oil on canvas; 95.5 x 129.5 cm; private collection[120]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a%25D0%2591%25D1%2580%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B4%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B9_%25D0%25A1%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B1%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B5_%25D0%25A0%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD%25D1%2581%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D1%2582%25D0%25B0.jpg)
![Fascist - University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in Bucharest (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46), Bucharest, Romania, by Petre Antonescu, 1933-1935[121]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBucuresti%2c_Romania%2c_Facultatea_de_Drept%2c_UNIVRSITATEA_Bucuresti%2c_B-II-m-A-19003.JPG)
![Nazi - New Reich Chancellery, Berlin, by Albert Speer, 1938-1939[122]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBundesarchiv_Bild_183-R89708%2c_Berlin%2c_Neue_Reichskanzlei.jpg)
![Fascist - Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana, Rome, by Giovanni Guerrini, Ernesto La Padula, and Mario Romano, 1939-1942[123]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPalazzo_della_civilt%25C3%25A0_del_lavoro_(EUR%2c_Rome)_(5904657870).jpg)
![Socialist Realist - Lomonosov University, Moscow, by Lev Rudnev, 1947-1952[123]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMoscow_State_University_crop.jpg)
![Socialist Realist - Colonels' Quarter (Șoseaua Panduri no. 60–62), Bucharest, by I.Novițchi, C.Ionescu, C.Hacker and A.Șerbescu, 1950–1960[124]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a60-62_%25C8%2598oseaua_Panduri%2c_Bucharest_(01).jpg)
![J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California, US, by the partnership of Langdon and Wilson with Edward Genter as the project architect and archaeological advice from Dr Norman Neuerberg, 1970-1975[127]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a060807-002-GettyVilla001.jpg)
![Interior courtyard of Les Arcades du Lac, Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, France, by Ricardo Bofill, 1975-1981[128]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aLes_Arcades_du_Lac_interior_courtyard.jpg)
![Sheraton chair with applied decoration; by Robert Venturi for Knoll; 1978–1984, bent laminated wood; unknown dimensions; Milwaukee Art Museum, Milwaukee, USA[129]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aRobert_venturi_e_denise_scott_brown_per_knoll_international_inc.%2c_sedia_sheraton_(mod._664)%2c_1979-83_(1984-90).jpg)
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![Louis XVI, lowboy; by Robert Venturi for Arc International; c.1985; laminated wood; unknown dimensions; Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indianapolis, USA[130]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aRobert_venturi_per_paul_downs_cabinetmakers%2c_comodino_louis_xvi%2c_1984.jpg)
![Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery, London, by Robert Venturi, 1987-1991[131]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aNational_Gallery_London_Sainsbury_Wing_2006-04-17.jpg)
![Isle of Dogs Pumping Station, London, John Outram, 1988[130]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPumping_station%2c_Stewart_Street_(geograph_4678320).jpg)
![77 West Wacker Drive, Chicago, US, by Ricardo Bofill, 1990-1992[132]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3a77_West_Wacker_Drive_May_2016_(2).jpg)
![Harold Washington Library, Chicago, by Hammond, Beeby & Babka, 1991[133]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHarold_Washington_Library_-_Chicago_Public_Library_(51574883428).jpg)
![Entrance era of the Harold Washington Library, by Hammond, Beeby & Babka, 1991[133]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aChicago_Public_Library_(CPL)_(14756610392).jpg)
![M2 Building, Tokyo, Japan, by Kengo Kuma, 1991[134]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aM2%25E3%2583%2593%25E3%2583%25AB_(%25E4%25B8%2596%25E7%2594%25B0%25E8%25B0%25B7%25E5%258C%25BA).jpeg)
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![Children's Museum of Houston, Houston, US, by Robert Venturi, 1992[135]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aHoustonChildrenMuseum.JPG)
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