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Neo-Vedanta, also calledneo-Hinduism,[1][2]Hindu modernism,[3]Global Hinduism[4] andHindu Universalism,[web 1] are terms to characterise interpretations ofHinduism that developed in the 19th century. The term "Neo-Vedanta" was coined by German IndologistPaul Hacker, in a pejorative way, to distinguish modern developments from "traditional"Advaita Vedanta.[5]
Scholars have repeatedly argued that these modern interpretations incorporateWestern ideas[6] into traditional Indian religions, especiallyAdvaita Vedanta, which is asserted as central or fundamental toHindu culture.[7] Other scholars have described aGreater Advaita Vedānta,[8][note 1] which developed since the medieval period.[note 2] Drawing on this broad pool of sources, afterMuslim rule in India was replaced bythat of the East India Company, Hindu religious and political leaders and thinkers responded to Westerncolonialism andorientalism, contributing to theIndian independence movement and the modern national and religious identity ofHindus in theRepublic of India. This societal aspect is covered under the term ofHindu reform movements.
Among the main proponents of such modern interpretations of Hinduism wereVivekananda,Aurobindo andRadhakrishnan, who to some extent also contributed to the emergence ofNeo-Hindu movements in the West.
Neo-Vedanta has been influential in the perception ofHinduism, both in the west and in the higher educated classes in India. It has received appraisal for its "solution of synthesis",[10] but has also been criticised for its Universalism. The terms "Neo-Hindu" or "Neo-Vedanta" themselves have also been criticised for its polemical usage, the prefix "Neo-" then intended to imply that these modern interpretations of Hinduism are "inauthentic" or in other ways problematic.[11]
According to Halbfass, the terms "Neo-Vedanta" and "Neo-Hinduism" refer to "the adoption of Western concepts and standards and the readiness to reinterpret traditional ideas in light of these new, imported and imposed modes of thought".[6] Prominent in Neo-Vedanta isVivekananda, whose theology, according to Madaio, is often characterised in earlier scholarship as "a rupture from 'traditional' or 'classical' Hindusim, particularly the 'orthodox' Advaita Vedanta of the eighth century Shankara".[12]
The term "Neo-Vedanta" appears to have arisen in Bengal in the 19th century, where it was used by both Indians and Europeans.[6] Brian Hatcher wrote that "the termneo-Vedanta was first coined by Christian commentators, some of whom were firsthand observers of developments in Brahmo theology... engaged in open, sometimes acrimonious debates with theBrahmos, whom they partly admired for their courage in abandoning traditions of polytheism and image worship but whom they also scorned for having proffered to other Hindus a viable alternative to conversion."[13]: 192 Halbfass wrote that "it seems likely" that the term "Neo-Hinduism" was invented by a Bengali,Brajendra Nath Seal (1864–1938), who used the term to characterise the literary work ofBankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838–1894).[6]
The term "neo-Vedanta" was used by Christian missionaries as well as Hindu traditionalists to criticise the emerging ideas of theBrahmo Samaj, a critical usage whose "polemical undertone [...] is obvious".[14]
Ayon Maharaj, also known asSwami Medhananda regards the continued scholarly use of the term "Neo-Vedanta" as only a "seemingly benign practice".[15]: 185 Maharaj asserts that the term Neo-Vedanta "is misleading and unhelpful for three main reasons":[16]: 46
First, a vague umbrella term such as "Neo-Vedanta" fails to capture the nuances of the specific Vedantic views of different modern figures.... Second, the term "Neo-Vedanta" misleadingly implies novelty.... Third, and most problematically, the term "Neo-Vedanta" is indelibly colored by German indologist Paul Hacker's polemical use of the term.[16]: 46–47
The term "neo-Hinduism" was used by a Jesuit scholar resident in India,Robert Antoine (1914–1981), from whom it was borrowed by Paul Hacker, who used it to demarcate these modernist ideas from "surviving traditional Hinduism,"[6] and treating the Neo-Advaitins as "dialogue partners with a broken identity who cannot truly and authentically speak for themselves and for the Indian tradition".[17] Hacker made a distinction between "Neo-Vedanta" and "neo-Hinduism",[1] seeing nationalism as a prime concern of "neo-Hinduism".[18]
Although neo-Vedanta developed in the 19th century in response to Western colonialism, it has deeper origins in the Muslim period of India.[19] Michael S. Allen and Anand Venkatkrishnan note that Shankara is well-studied, but "scholars have yet to provide even a rudimentary, let alone comprehensive account of the history of Advaita Vedanta in the centuries leading up to the colonial period."[20]
Well before the advent of British influence, with beginnings that some scholars have argued significantly predate Islamic influence,[21][22] hierarchical classifications of the various orthodox schools were developed.[19] According to Nicholson, already between the twelfth and the sixteenth century,
... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy.[23]
The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted byMikel Burley.[24] Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,[25] and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",[26] which started well before 1800.[27] Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers.[23]
Within these so-calleddoxographies Advaita Vedanta was given the highest position, since it was regarded to be most inclusive system.[19]Vijnanabhiksu, a 16th-century philosopher and writer, is still an influential proponent of these doxographies. He's been a prime influence on 19th century Hindu modernists like Vivekananda, who also tried to integrate various strands of Hindu thought, taking Advaita Vedanta as its most representative specimen.[19]
While Indologists like Paul Hacker and Wilhelm Halbfass took Shankara's system as the measure for an "orthodox" Advaita Vedanta, the living Advaita Vedanta tradition in medieval times was influenced by, and incorporated elements from, the yogic tradition and texts like theYoga Vasistha and theBhagavata Purana.[28] TheYoga Vasistha became an authoritative source text in the Advaita vedanta tradition in the 14th century, while Vidyāraņya'sJivanmuktiviveka (14th century) was influenced by the(Laghu-)Yoga-Vasistha, which in turn was influenced byKashmir Shaivism.[9] Vivekananda's 19th century emphasis onnirvikalpa samadhi was preceded by medieval yogic influences on Advaita Vedanta. In the 16th and 17th centuries, someNath andhatha yoga texts also came within the scope of the developing Advaita Vedanta tradition.[29]
The influence of the IslamicMughal Empire on theIndian subcontinent was gradually replaced with that of theEast India Company, leading to a new era inIndian history. Prior to the establishment of Company rule, Mughal rule in Northern India had a drastic effect onHinduism (andBuddhism) through variousacts of persecution. While Indian society was greatly impacted by Mughal rule, the Mughaleconomy however continued to remain one of the largest in the world, thanks in large part to itsproto-industrialisation.[30] Muslim rule over Southern India was also relatively short-lived before the 17th century. The policies of the East India Company coincided with the decline of proto-industrialisation in former Mughal territories.[30][31] The economic decline caused in part by restrictive Company policies in their Indian territories and theIndustrial Revolution in Europe led to the eventual dismantlement of the dominant decentralisededucation systems in India in the tail end of the 18th century.[31] The new education system drafted by the East India Company emphasisedWestern culture at the expense of Indian cultures.[31] The East India Company was also involved in supporting the activities ofProtestant missionaries in India, particularly after 1813.[32] These missionaries frequently expressed anti-Hindu sentiments, in line with their Christian ways of thinking.[32]
In response to Company rule in India and the dominance of Western culture,Hindu reform movements developed,[33] propagating societal and religious reforms, exemplifying whatPercival Spear has called
... the 'solution of synthesis'—the effort to adapt to the newcomers, in the process of which innovation and assimilation gradually occur, alongside an ongoing agenda to preserve the unique values of the many traditions of Hinduism (and other religious traditions as well).[34][note 3]
Neo-Vedanta, also called "neo-Hinduism"[1] is a central theme in these reform-movements.[7] The earliest of these reform-movements was Ram Mohan Roy'sBrahmo Samaj, who strived toward a purified and monotheistic Hinduism.[35]
Neo-Vedanta's main proponents are the leaders of the Brahmo Samaj, especiallyRam Mohan Roy is the main proponents of neo-Hinduism.[18]
The Brahmo Samaj was the first of the 19th century reform movements. Its founder, Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833), strived toward auniversalistic interpretation of Hinduism.[36] He rejected Hindu mythology, but also the Christian trinity.[37] He found thatUnitarianism came closest to true Christianity,[37] and had a strong sympathy for the Unitarians.[38] He founded a missionary committee in Calcutta, and in 1828 asked for support for missionary activities from the American Unitarians.[39] By 1829, Roy had abandoned the Unitarian Committee,[40] but after Roy's death, the Brahmo Samaj kept close ties to the Unitarian Church,[41] who strived towards a rational faith, social reform, and the joining of these two in a renewed religion.[38] The Unitarians were closely connected to theTranscendentalists, who were interested in and influenced by Indian religions early on.[42]
Rammohan Roy's ideas were "altered ... considerably" byDebendranath Tagore, who had aRomantic approach to the development of these new doctrines, and questioned central Hindu beliefs like reincarnation and karma, and rejected the authority of theVedas.[43] Tagore also brought this "neo-Hinduism" closer in line with Westernesotericism, a development which was furthered by Keshubchandra Sen.[44] Sen was influenced byTranscendentalism, an American philosophical-religious movement strongly connected with Unitarianism, which emphasised personalreligious experience over mere reasoning and theology.[45] Sen strived to "an accessible, non-renunciatory, everyman type of spirituality", introducing "lay systems of spiritual practice" which can be regarded as prototypes of the kind of Yoga-exercises which Vivekananda populurised in the west.[46]
The theology of the Brahmo Samaj was called "neo-Vedanta" by Christian commentators,[17][47] who "partly admired [the Brahmos] for their courage in abandoning traditions of polytheism and image worship, but whom they also scorned for having proffered to other Hindus a viable alternative to conversion".[47] Critics accused classical Vedanta of being "cosmic self-infatuation" and "ethical nihilism".[47] Brahmo Samaj leaders responded to such attacks by redefining the Hindu path to liberation, making the Hindu path available to both genders and all castes,[47] incorporating "notions of democracy and worldly improvement".[48]
According to Gavin Flood, Vivekananda (1863–1902)[49] (Narendranath Dutta) "is a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism".[49] He played a major role in therevival of Hinduism,[50] and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via theRamakrishna Mission.[note 4]
In 1880 Vivekananda joinedKeshub Chandra Sen'sNava Vidhan, which was established by Sen after meetingRamakrishna and reconverting from Christianity to Hinduism.[52] Narendranath (a.k.a. Narendra) became a member of aFreemasonry lodge "at some point before 1884"[53] and of theSadharan Brahmo Samaj in his twenties, a breakaway faction of theBrahmo Samaj led byKeshub Chandra Sen andDebendranath Tagore.[52][54][55][56] From 1881 to 1884 he was also active in Sen'sBand of Hope, which tried to discourage the youth from smoking and drinking.[52] It was in thiscultic[57] milieu that Narendra became acquainted with Westernesotericism.[58] His initial beliefs were shaped by Brahmo concepts, which included belief in a formless God and the deprecation ofidolatry,[59][60] and a "streamlined, rationalised, monotheistic theology strongly coloured by a selective and modernistic reading of theUpanisads and of the Vedanta".[36] He propagated the idea that "the divine, the absolute, exists within all human beings regardless of social status",[3] and that "seeing the divine as the essence of others will promote love and social harmony".[3]
During this period, he came in contact withRamakrishna, who eventually became his guru. Maharaj has argued that Ramakrishna gradually brought Narendra to a Vedanta-based worldview that "provides the ontological basis for 'śivajñāne jīver sevā', the spiritual practice of serving human beings as actual manifestations of God."[15]: 177 Maharaj describes how, "on one occasion in 1884, Sri Ramakrishna was explaining... that one of the main religious practices ofVaiṣṇavas is 'showing compassion to all beings' (sarva jīve dayā)",[15]: 179 and that Ramakrishna then asserted "It must not be compassion, but service to all. Serve them, knowing that they are all manifestations of God [śivajñāne jīver sevā]".[15]: 179 According to Maharaj, Ramakrishna teachings that day "affected the young Naren so deeply that he took his friends aside afterward and explained its profound ethical significance to them",[15]: 180 stating
What Ṭhākur [Sri Ramakrishna] said today in his ecstatic mood is clear: One can bring Vedānta from the forest to the home and practice it in daily life. Let people continue with whatever they are doing; there’s no harm in this. People must first fully believe and be convinced that God has manifested Himself before them as the world and its creatures.... If people consider everyone to be God, how can they consider themselves to be superior to others and harbor attachment, hatred, arrogance—or even compassion [dayā]—toward them? Their minds will become pure as they serve all beings as God [śivajñāne jīver sevā], and soon they will experience themselves as parts of the blissful God. They will realize that their true nature is pure, illumined, and free. (Saradananda 2003: 852, Sāradānanda [1919] 2009: II.ii.131)[15]: 180
Vivekananda popularised the notion ofinvolution, a term which he probably took from westernTheosophists, notablyHelena Blavatsky, in addition to Darwin's notion of evolution, and possibly referring to theSamkhya termsātkarya.[61][note 5] According to Meera Nanda, "Vivekananda uses the word involution exactly how it appears in Theosophy: the descent, or the involvement, of divine cosnciousness into matter."[62] With spirit, Vivekananda refers toprana orpurusha, derived ("with some original twists") from Samkhya andclassical yoga as presented byPatanjali in theYoga Sutras.[62]
Vivekananda's acquaintance with Western esotericism made him very successful in Western esoteric circles, beginning with his speech in 1893 at the Parliament of Religions. Vivekananda adapted traditional Hindu ideas and religiosity to suit the needs and understandings of his Western audiences, who were especially attracted by and familiar with Western esoteric traditions and movements likeTranscendentalism andNew thought.[63] An important element in his adaptation of Hindu religiosity was the introduction of his four yoga's model, which includesRaja yoga, his interpretation of Patanjali'sYoga Sutras,[64] which offered a practical means to realise the divine force within which is central to modern Western esotericism.[63] In 1896 his bookRaja Yoga was published, which became an instant success and was highly influential in the Western understanding of yoga.[65][66]
In line with Advaita Vedanta texts likeDŗg-Dŗśya-Viveka (14th century) andVedantasara (of Sadananda) (15th century), Vivekananda sawsamadhi as a means to attain liberation.[67]
Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948) has become a worldwide hero of tolerance,nonviolence, and striving toward freedom. In his own time, he objected to the growing forces ofIndian nationalism,communalism and thesubaltern response.[68][note 6] Gandhi saw religion as a uniting force, confessing the equality of all religions.[70] He synthesised theAstika,Nastika andSemitic religions, promoting an inclusive culture for peaceful living.[70] Gandhi pled for a newhermeneutics of Indian scriptures and philosophy, observing that "there are ample religious literature both inAstika andNastika religions supporting for a pluralistic approach to religious and cultural diversity".[70]
The orthodox Advaita Vedanta, and the heterodox Jain conceptAnekantavada provided him concepts for an "integral approach to religious pluralism".[70] He regarded Advaita as a universal religion ("dharma"[71]) which could unite both the orthodox and nationalistic religious interpretations, as the subaltern alternatives.[71] Hereby Gandhi offers an interpretation ofHindutva which is basically different from theSangh Parivar-interpretation.[71] The concept ofanekantavada offered Gandhi an axiom that "truth is many-sided and relative".[71] It is "a methodology to counter exclusivism or absolutism propounded by many religious interpretations".[71] It has the capability of synthesising different percpetions of reality.[71] In Gandhi's view,
...the spirit of 'Synthesis' essentially dominated Indian civilization. This spirit is absorption, assimilation, co-existence and synthesis.[71]
Anekantavada also gives room to an organic understanding of "spatio-temporal process",[71] that is, the daily world and its continued change.[note 7] The doctrine of anekantavada is a plea forsamvada, "dialogue", and an objection against proselytising activities.[71]
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was a major force in the further popularisation of Neo-Vedanta.[73] As a schoolboy, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan was inspired by Vivekananda's lectures, in which he found "an ennobling vision of truth and harmony as well as a message of Indian pride".[18] He was educated by Christian missionaries, and wrote a master thesis on Vedanta and ethics.[74] In later life, he became vice-president and president of India.[74] According to Rinehart, he presented his view of Hinduism asthe view of Hinduism.[74] Central in his presentation was the claim that religion is fundamentally a kind of experience,[74]anubhava,[web 2] reducing religion "to the core experience of reality in its fundamental unity".[74][note 8] For Radhakrishnan, Vedanta was the essence and bedrock of religion.[78]
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Vivekananda "occupies a very important place" in the development of Indian nationalism[web 3] as well as Hindu nationalism,[79][80] and has been called "the prophet of nationalism", pleading for a "Hindu regeneration".[81] According to S.N. Sen, his motto "Arise, Awake and do not stop until the goal is reached" had a strong appeal for millions of Indians.[81] According to Bijoy Misra, a private blogger,
Incolonial India, "salvation" had been interpreted as being independent from colonial rule. Many Indians credit Swami Vivekananda to have sown the early seeds of nationalism culminating in India's independence.[web 4]
| This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding missing information.(September 2015) |
According to Bijoy Misra, a private blogger,
Spiritual culmination needed awakening of human will and he helped create a band of volunteers to work among the poor, the distressed and the "left outs" in the economic power struggle. This path of pursuing spirituality through service is a part of original concepts of SriKrishna.[web 4]
Neo-Vedanta aims to present Hinduism as a "homogenised ideal of Hinduism"[82] with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine.[7] It presents
... an imagined "integral unity" that was probably little more than an "imagined" view of the religious life that pertained only to a cultural elite and that empirically speaking had very little reality "on the ground," as it were, throughout the centuries of cultural development in the South Asian region.[83]
Neo-Vedanta was influenced by Oriental scholarship, which portrayed Hinduism as a "single world religion",[7] and denigrated the heterogeneity of Hindu beliefs and practices as 'distortions' of the basic teachings of Vedanta.[84][note 9][note 10]
Following Ramakrishna, neo-Vedanta regards all religions to be equal paths to liberation, but also gives a special place to Hinduism, as the ultimate universal religion. The various religious faiths of the world are regarded to help people to attain God-realisation, the experience of God or the Ultimate. According to some authors, this is expressed in theRig Veda,[88] "Truth isone; only It is called by different names,"[89] TheRamakrishna/Vivekananda movement has these concepts to popular awareness in India and the West. An example isAldous Huxley's 1945 book,The Perennial Philosophy, in which are gathered quotes from the religions of the world that express, for him, the universality of religion by showing the same fundamental Truths are found in each of the world's religions.
While aligning with Advaita Vedanta, neo-Vedanta modifies core tenets of that tradition. According to Benavides, neo-Vedanta is actually closer to Ramanuja'squalified non-dualism than it is to Shankara Advaita Vedanta.[90] Anil Sooklal also notes that Vivekananda's neo-Advaita "reconciles Dvaita or dualism and Advaita or non-dualism".[91][note 11] Nicholas F. Gier notes that neo-Vedanta does not regard the world to be illusionary, in contrast to Shankara's Advaita.[92][note 12][note 13]
Radhakrishnan acknowledged the reality and diversity of the world of experience, which he saw as grounded in and supported by the absolute or Brahman.[web 5][note 14] Radhakrishnan also reinterpreted Shankara's notion ofmaya. According to Radhakrishnan, maya is not a strict absolute idealism, but "a subjective misperception of the world as ultimately real".[web 5]
Gandhi endorsed the Jain concept ofAnekantavada,[93] the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth.[94][95] This concept embraces the perspectives of both Vedānta which, according to Jainism, "recognisessubstances but not process", and Buddhism, which "recognisesprocess but not substance". Jainism, on the other hand, pays equal attention to both substance (dravya) and process (paryaya).[96]
According to Michael Taft, Ramakrishna reconciled the dualism of formless and form.[97] Ramakrishna regarded the Supreme Being to be both Personal and Impersonal, active and inactive.[web 6][note 15] According to Sarma, who stands in the tradition ofNisargadatta Maharaj, Advaitavāda means "spiritual non-dualism or absolutism",[98] in which opposites aremanifestations of the Absolute, which itself is immanent and transcendent.[99][note 16]
A central concern in Neo-Vedanta is the role ofsruti, sacred texts, versus (personal) experience. Classical Advaita Vedanta is centered on the correct understanding ofsruti, the sacred texts. Correct understanding of thesruti is apramana, a means of knowledge to attain liberation.[100][101][102] It takes years of preparation and study to accomplish this task, and includes the mastery of Sanskrit, the memorisation of texts, and the meditation over the interpretation of those texts.[103] Understanding is calledanubhava,[104] knowledge or understanding derived from (personal) experience.[web 7][105]Anubhava removesAvidya, ignorance, regarding Brahman and Atman, and leads tomoksha, liberation. In neo-Vedanta, the status ofsruti becomes secondary, and"personal experience" itself becomes the primary means to liberation.[106]
According to Ninian Smart, Neo-Vedanta is "largely a smarta account."[107] In modern times Smarta-views have been highly influential in both the Indian[107][web 8] and Western[web 9] understanding of Hinduism. According to iskcon.org,
Many Hindus may not strictly identify themselves as Smartas but, by adhering to Advaita Vedanta as a foundation for non-sectarianism, are indirect followers.[web 8]
Vaitheespara notes adherence of Smartha Brahmans to "the pan-Indian Sanskrit-Brahmanical tradition":[108]
The emerging pan-Indian nationalism was clearly founded upon a number of cultural movements that, for the most part, reimagined an 'Aryo-centric', neo-Brahmanical vision of India, which provided the 'ideology' for this hegemonic project. In the Tamil region, such a vision and ideology was closely associated with the Tamil Brahmans and, especially, the Smartha Brahmans who were considered the strongest adherents of the pan-Indian Sanskrit-Brahmanical tradition.[108]
The majority of members of Smarta community follow the Advaita Vedanta philosophy of Shankara.[web 10] Smarta and Advaita have become almost synonymous, though not all Advaitins are Smartas.[web 10]Shankara was a Smarta,[web 10] just likeRadhakrishnan.[109][110] Smartas believe in the essential oneness of five (panchadeva) or six (Shanmata) deities as personifications of the Supreme.[citation needed] According to Smartism, supreme reality, Brahman, transcends all of the various forms of personal deity.[111] God is bothSaguna andNirguna:[web 11]
As Saguna, God exhibits qualities such as an infinite nature and a number of characteristics such as compassion, love, and justice. As Nirguna, God is understood as pure consciousness that is not connected with matter as experienced by humanity. Because of the holistic nature of God, these are simply two forms or names that are expressions of Nirguna Brahman, or the Ultimate Reality.[web 11]
Lola Williamson further notes that "what is called Vedic in the smarta tradition, and in much of Hinduism, is essentially Tantric in its range of deities and liturgical forms."[112]
Neo-Vedanta was popularised in the 20th century in both India and the west byVivekananda,[113][7]Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan,[7] and Westernorientalists who regarded Vedanta to be the "central theology of Hinduism".[7]
Neo-Vedanta has become a broad current in Indian culture,[7][114] extending far beyond theDashanami Sampradaya, the Advaita VedantaSampradaya founded byAdi Shankara. The influence of Neo-Vedanta on Indian culture has been called "Vedanticisation" byRichard King.[115]
An example of this "Vedanticisation" isRamana Maharshi, who is regarded as one of the greatest Hindu-saints of modern times,[note 17], of whom Sharma notes that "among all the major figures of modern Hinduism [he] is the one person who is widely regarded as ajivanmukti".[116] Although Sharma admits that Ramana was not acquainted with Advaita Vedanta before his personal experience of liberation,[117] and Ramana never receivedinitiation into theDashanami Sampradaya or any othersampradaya,[web 12] Sharma nevertheless sees Ramana's answers to questions by devotees as being within an Advaita Vedanta framework.[118][note 18][note 13]
In response to the developments in India during the colonial era and Western critiques of Hinduism, various visions on Indian diversity and unity have been developed within the nationalistic and reform movements.[32][125]
TheBrahmo Samaj strived towards monotheism, while no longer regarding the Vedas as sole religious authority.[125] The Brahmo Samaj had a strong influence on the Neo-Vedanta of Vivekananda,[125] Aurobindo, Radhakrishnan and Gandhi,[32] who strived toward a modernised, humanistic Hinduism with an open eye for societal problems and needs.[32] Other groups, like theArya Samaj, strived toward a revival of Vedic authority.[126][note 19] In this context, various responses toward India's diversity developed.
In modern times, the orthodox measure of the primacy of the Vedas has been joined with the 'grand narrative' of the Vedic origins of Hinduism. The exclusion of Jainism and Buddhism excludes a substantial part of India's cultural and religious history from the assertion of a strong and positive Hindu identity. Hindutva-ideology solves this problem by taking recourse to the notion ofHindutva, "Hinduness", which includes Jainism and Buddhism. A recent strategy, exemplified byRajiv Malhotra, is the use of the termdharma as a common denominator, which also includes Jainism and Buddhism.[72]
According to Larson, Malhotra's notion of "the so-called "Dharma” traditions"[128] and their "integral unity" is another example of "neo-Hindu discourse".[128] Malhotra, in hisBeing Different, uses the term "Dharmic tradition" or "dharmic systems", "referring to all the Hindu, Buddhist, Jaina and Sikh traditions".[83] He proposes that those traditions, despite their differences, share common features, the most important being "Dharma".[note 20] They are also characterised by the notion of "Integral Unity", which means that "ultimately only the whole exists; the parts that make up the whole have but a relative existence. The whole is independent and indivisible",[web 13] as opposed to "Synthetic Unity", which "starts with parts that exist separately from one another".[web 13][note 21] Malhotra has received strong criticism of his ideas, for 'glossing over'[131] the differences between and even within the various traditions of India.[132][133]
In response, Malhotra explains that some of his critics confused "integral unity" with "homogeneity", thinking that Malhotra said all those traditions are essentially the same, when he actually wrote that Dharmic traditions share a sense of an "integral unity" despite differences.[134][note 22]
According to Rinehart, neo-Vedanta is "a theological scheme for subsuming religious difference under the aegis of Vedantic truth".[136][note 23] According to Rinehart, the consequence of this line of reasoning isCommunalism,[136] the idea that "all people belonging to one religion have common economic, social and political interests and these interests are contrary to the interests of those belonging to another religion."[web 14] Communalism has become a growing force in Indian politics, presenting several threats to India, hindring itsnation-building[137] and threatening "the secular, democratic character of the Indian state".[137]
Rinehart notes that Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement,[136] and that "the neo-Hindu discource is the unintended consequence of the initial moves made by thinkers like Rammohan Roy and Vivekananda."[136] But Rinehart also points out that it is
...clear that there isn't a neat line of causation that leads from the philosophies of Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan to the agenda of [...] militant Hindus.[138][note 24]
Neo-Vedanta has been influenced by Western ideas, but has also had a reverse influence on Western spirituality. Due to thecolonisation of Asia by the Western world, since the late 18th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the Western world and Asia, which also influenced Western religiosity.[85] In 1785 appeared the first Western translation of a Sanskrit-text.[141] It marked the growing interest in the Indian culture and languages.[142] The first translation of Upanishads appeared in two parts in 1801 and 1802,[142] which influencedArthur Schopenhauer, who called them "the consolation of my life".[143][note 25] Early translations also appeared in other European languages.[144]
A major force in the mutual influence of eastern and Western ideas and religiosity was theTheosophical Society.[145][114] It searched for ancient wisdom in the east, spreading eastern religious ideas in the west.[146] One of its salient features was the belief in"Masters of Wisdom"[147][note 26], "beings, human or once human, who have transcended the normal frontiers of knowledge, and who make their wisdom available to others".[147] The Theosophical Society also spread western ideas in the east, aiding a modernisation of eastern traditions, and contributing to a growing nationalism in the Asian colonies.[85][note 27] Another major influence wasVivekananda,[152][113] who popularised his modernised interpretation[125] of Advaita Vedanta in the 19th and early 20th century in both India and the west,[113] emphasisinganubhava ("personal experience")[153] over scriptural authority.[153]
According to Larson, the "solution of synthesis" prevailed in the work of Rammohun Roy,Sayyid Ahmed Khan,Rabindranath Tagore,Swami Vivekananda, M. K. Gandhi,Muhammad Iqbal,V. D. Savarkar, Jawaharlal Nehru, "and many others".[10] Spear voices appraisal of this "solution of synthesis",[note 28][note 29] while G. R. Sharma emphasises the humanism of neo-Vedanta.[154][note 30]
Vivekenanda's presentation of Advaita Vedanta has been criticised for its misinterpretation of this tradition:
Without calling into question the right of any philosopher to interpret Advaita according to his own understanding of it, [...] the process ofWesternization has obscured the core of this school of thought. The basic correlation of renunciation and Bliss has been lost sight of in the attempts to underscore the cognitive structure and the realistic structure which according to Sankaracarya should both belong to, and indeed constitute the realm of māyā.[51]
According toAnantanand Rambachan, Vivekananda emphasisedanubhava ("personal experience"[153]) over scriptural authority,[153] but in his interpretation of Shankara, deviated from Shankara, who saw knowledge and understanding of the scriptures as the primary means to moksha.[125] According to Comans, the emphasis on samadhi also is not to be found in the Upanishads nor with Shankara.[155] For Shankara, meditation andNirvikalpa Samadhi are means to gain knowledge of the already existing unity of Brahman and Atman.[67]
In the 21st century, Neo-Vedanta has been criticised by Hindu traditionalists for the influence of "Radical Universalism", arguing that it leads to a "self-defeating philosophical relativism," and has weakened the status and strength of Hinduism.[web 15]
In the 20th century the German IndologistPaul Hacker used the terms "Neo-Vedanta" and "Neo-Hinduism" polemically, to criticise modern Hindu thinkers.[156] Halbfass regards the terms "Neo-Vedanta" and "Neo-Hinduism" as "useful and legitimate as convenient labels",[6] but has criticised Hacker for use that was "simplistic".[6] Furthermore, he asks,
What is the significance and legitimacy of the "Neo" in expressions like "Neo-Hinduism and "Neo-Vedanta"? Could we speak of "Neo-Christianity" as well? In fact, I have used this term [...] and not all my Christian readers and reviewers were happy about the term.[6]
Halbfass wrote that the adoption of the terms
"Neo-Hinduism" and "Neo-Vedanta" [...] by Western scholars reflects Christian and European claims and perspectives which continue to be an irritant to Indians today. For Hacker, the "Neo" in "Neo-Hinduism" implies a lack of authenticity, an apologetic accommodation to Western ideas, and a hybridization of the tradition.[157][note 31]
Bagchee and Adluri argue that German Indology, including Hacker, was merely "a barely disguised form of religious evangelism".[159]
According to Malhotra, an Indian-American Hindu writer, it was Paul Hacker who popularised the term 'neo-Hinduism' in the 1950s, "to refer to the modernisation of Hinduism brought about by many Indian thinkers, the most prominent being Swami Vivekananda."[web 16] In Malhotra's view, "Hacker charged that 'neo-Hindus', most notably Vivekananda, have disingenuously adopted Western ideas and expressed them using Sanskrit."[web 16] Malhotra also notes that Hacker was a biased Christian apologist:
What is less known about Hacker is that he was also an unabashed Christian apologist who freely used his academic standing to further the cause of his Christian agenda. He led a parallel life, passionately advocating Christianity while presenting the academic face of being neutral and objective.[web 16]
According to David Smith, Hacker's belief was that the ethical values of 'neo-Hinduism" came from Western philosophy and Christianity, just in Hindu terms. Hacker also believed that Hinduism began in the 1870s. He saw Bankin Chattopadhyaya, Aurobindo, Gandhi, and Radhakishnan as its most famous proponents.[160]
Brian K. Smith notes that "The Neo-Hindu indigenous authorities are often dismissed as 'inauthentic,' their claims to legitimacy compromised by their encounters with modernity", which influenced their worldview and religious positions,[161] but points out that
All religions, at various points in recent history and under varying circumstances, have adopted to the modern world and the accompanying intellectual trends of modernity. 'Hinduism' (or 'Neo-Hinduism') is not unique in this regard either; the Neo-Hindu movement shares many commonalities with developments in other religious traditions around the world over the past several hundred years. The study of religion is the study of traditions in constant change.[162][note 32]
According to Madaio, the notion that Vivekananda and other Hindu modernists deviate from orthodox, classical Advaita Vedanta, neglects the fact that considerable developments took place in Indian religious thinking, including Advaita Vedanta.[12]
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Rajiv Malhotra, in his 2014 bookIndra's Net, has stated that there is a "myth of Neo-Hinduism".[164] According to him, there are "eight myths"[165] of Neo-Hinduism such as "colonial Indology's biases were turned into Hinduism" (Myth 2)[166] and "Hinduism was manufactured and did not grow organically" (Myth 3).[167] Malhotra denies that "Vivekananda manufactured Hinduism", or that `neo-Vedanta' suppressed "the traditions of the Indian masses." According to Malhotra, there is "an integrated, unified spiritual substratum in ancient India,"[168] and argues that
the branding of contemporary Hinduism as a faux 'neo-Hinduism' is a gross mischaracterization of both traditional and contemporary Hinduism [...] [C]ontemporary Hinduism is a continuation of a dynamic tradition. It is not in any way less authentic or less 'Hindu' than what may be dubbed traditional Hinduism. There are negative connotations to the term 'neo' which imply something artificial, untrue, or unfaithful to the original. Other world religions have undergone similar adaptations in modern times, though there are no such references to 'neo-Christianity' [...] I resist the wide currency being gained for the term 'neo-Hinduism', because this fictional divide between 'neo' and 'original' Hinduism subverts Hinduism.[169]
According to Malhotra, the 'myth of neo-Hinduism' "is used to fragment Hindu society by pitting its spiritual giants against one another and distorting their subtle and deeply intricate viewpoints."[168] Also according to him, "the definition of neo-Hinduism has been contrived and [...] gained authenticity, in part because it suits certain academic and political agendas, and in part because it has been reiterated extensively without adequate critical response."[170]
Malhotra would have the reader believe that there is an "integral unity" underlying the various Dharma traditions, but, in fact, the very term "dharma" signals fascinating differences."[83]
And according to Yelle,
The idea of "dharmic traditions" represents a choice to gloss over, whether for ideological or strategic reasons, the vast differences that exist among and even within the various traditions of India ... These differences are invoked occasionally in order to buttress Malhotra’s argument for the pluralism of Indian culture, only to be erased as he presents as universal to dharmic traditions what is, in fact, easily recognizable as a thoroughly modern and homogenized ideal of Hinduism drawn from certain aspects of Vedanta philosophy and Yoga.[131]
In a response, Malhotra explains that some of his critics confused "integral unity" with "homogeneity", and that all those traditions are essentially the same, but that they share the assertion of an "integral unity":[134]
Yelle is right when he says that, "Every tradition is in fact an amalgam, and retains the traces of its composite origins." But he is wrong when he argues against my use of common features such as integral unity and embodied knowing, calling these "a thoroughly modern and homogenized ideal of Hinduism drawn from certain aspects of Vedånta philosophy andYoga." His concern about homogenization would have been legitimate if Being Different had proposed an integration of all Dharma traditions into a single new tradition. This is simply not my goal. Looking for commonality as a standpoint from which to gaze at a different family does not require us to relinquish the internal distinctiveness among the members of either family.[135]
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