In the English language, the termnegro is a term historically used to refer to people ofBlackAfrican heritage. The termnegro means the colorblack in Spanish and Portuguese (fromLatinniger), where English took it from.[1] The term can be viewed asoffensive, inoffensive, or completely neutral, largely depending on the region or country where it is used, as well as the time period and context in which it is applied. It has various equivalents in otherlanguages of Europe.
Around 1442, the Portuguese first arrived inSouthern Africa while trying to find a sea route to India.[2][3] The termnegro, literally meaning 'black', was used by the Spanish and Portuguese as a simple description to refer to theBantu peoples that they encountered.Negro denotes 'black' in Spanish and Portuguese, derived from theLatin wordniger, meaning 'black', which itself is probably from aProto-Indo-European root*nekw-, "to be dark", akin to*nokw-, 'night'.[4][5]Negro was also used for the peoples of West Africa inold maps labelledNegroland, an area stretching along theNiger River.
From the 18th century to the late 1960s,negro (later capitalized) was considered to be the properEnglish-language term for people of black African origin. According to Oxford Dictionaries, use of the word "now seems out of date or even offensive in both British and US English".[1]
A specifically female form of the word,negress (sometimes capitalized), was occasionally used. However, likeJewess, it has completely fallen out of use.
Negroid was used withinphysical anthropology to denote one of the three purported races of humankind, alongsideCaucasoid andMongoloid. The suffix "-oid" means "similar to".Negroid as a noun was used to designate a wider or more generalized category thanNegro; as an adjective, it qualified a noun as in, for example, "negroid features".[6]
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"If on no other issue than this one [the capitalization of the wordNegro],Du Bois andWashington were in total agreement; each of them consistently urged the adoption of upper-case treatment by mainstream publications. Du Bois'sSuppression andPhiladelphia Negro monographs had been among the first to have the noun placed in capitals, and Washington's success in gettingDoubleday, Page and Company to capitalize the word inUp From Slavery represented a significant breakthrough."
Negro supersededcolored as the most polite word forAfrican Americans at a time whenblack was considered more offensive.[8][better source needed][failed verification] In17th-century colonial America, the termNegro had been also, according to one historian, used to describeNative Americans.[9]John Belton O'Neall'sThe Negro Law of South Carolina (1848) stipulated that "the term negro is confined to slave Africans, (the ancientBerbers) and their descendants. It does not embrace the free inhabitants of Africa, such as the Egyptians,Moors, or the negro Asiatics, such as theLascars."[10] TheAmerican Negro Academy was founded in 1897, to supportliberal arts education.Marcus Garvey used the word in the names ofblack nationalist andpan-Africanist organizations such as theUniversal Negro Improvement Association (founded 1914), theNegro World (1918), theNegro Factories Corporation (1919), and theDeclaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World (1920).W. E. B. Du Bois and Dr.Carter G. Woodson used it in the titles of their non-fiction books,The Negro (1915) andThe Mis-Education of the Negro (1933) respectively. Du Bois also used in the titles of his booksThe Study of the Negro Problems (1898) andThe Philadelphia Negro (1899).Negro was accepted as normal, both asexonym and endonym, until the late 1960s, after the laterCivil Rights Movement. One example isMartin Luther King Jr. self-identification asNegro in his famous "I Have a Dream" speech of 1963.
However, during the late 1950s and early 1960s, the wordNegro began to be criticized as having been imposed by white people, and having connotations of racial subservience andUncle Tomism. The termBlack, in contrast, denoted pride, power, and a rejection of the past. It took root first in more militant groups such as theBlack Muslims andBlack Panthers, and by 1967,SNCC leaderStokely Carmichael pushed for the abandonment ofNegro. After theNewark riots in the summer of 1967, one third to one half of young Black males polled in Newark self-identified asBlack. The term coexisted for a while withNegro, with the newer term initially referring only to progressive or radical Blacks, whileNegro was used more for the Black establishment.[11]: 499 Malcolm X preferredBlack toNegro, but also started using the termAfro-American after leaving theNation of Islam.[12]
Since the late 1960s, various other terms have been more widespread in popular usage. These includeBlack,Black African,Afro-American (in use from the late 1960s to 1990) andAfrican American.[13] The wordNegro fell out of favor by the early 1970s and major media includingAssociated Press andThe New York Times stopped using it that decade.[14] However, many older African Americans initially found the termblack more offensive thanNegro.
The termNegro is still used in some historical contexts, such as the songs known asNegro spirituals, theNegro leagues of baseball in the early and mid-20th century, and organizations such as theUnited Negro College Fund.[15][16] Theacademic journal published byHoward University since 1932 still bears the titleJournal of Negro Education, but others have changed: e.g. the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History (founded 1915) became the Association for the Study of Afro-American Life and History in 1973, and is now theAssociation for the Study of African American Life and History; its publicationThe Journal of Negro History becameThe Journal of African American History in 2001.Margo Jefferson titled her 2015 bookNegroland: A Memoir to evoke growing up in the 1950s and 1960s in theAfrican-American upper class.
African-American linguistJohn McWhorter has bemoaned attacks on the use ofNegro in "utterances or written reproductions of the word when referring to older texts and titles". He cites reports that performances or publishing of certain works (William L. Dawson'sNegro Folk Symphony, and an anthology ofNorman Mailer's works) have been avoided, "out of wariness of the word 'Negro'” used in titles; and of "two cases" between 2020-2021 "of white college professors having complaints filed against them by students for using the word 'Negro' in class when quoting older texts."[17]
TheUnited States Census Bureau includedNegro on the2010 Census, alongsideBlack andAfrican-American, because some older black Americans still self-identify with the term.[18][19][20] TheU.S. census used the grouping "Black, African-American, or Negro".Negro was used in an effort to include older African Americans who more closely associate with the term.[21] In 2013, the census removed the term from its forms and questionnaires.[22] The term has also been censored by some newspaper archives.[23]
Theconstitution of Liberia limits Liberian nationality toNegro people (see alsoLiberian nationality law).[24]People of other racial origins, even if they have lived for many years inLiberia, are thus precluded from becoming citizens of the Republic.[25]
InSpanish,negro (femininenegra) is most commonly used for the color black, but it can also be used to describe people with dark-colored skin. In Spain, Mexico, and almost all of Latin America,negro (lower-cased, asethnonyms are generally not capitalized inRomance languages) means just 'black colour' and does not refer by itself to any ethnic or race unless further context is provided. As in English, this Spanish word is often used figuratively and negatively, to mean 'irregular' or 'undesirable', as inmercado negro ('black market'). However, in most Spanish-speaking countries,negro andnegra are commonly as a form of endearment, when used to refer to partners or close friends.[26]
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In thePhilippines, which historically had almost no contact with theAtlantic slave trade, the Spanish-derived termnegro (femininenegra) is still commonly used to refer to black people, as well as to people with dark-colored skin (both native and foreign). As in Spanish usage, it has no negative connotations when referring to black people. However, it can be mildly pejorative when referring to the skin color of other native Filipinos due to traditional beauty standards. The use of the term for the color black is restricted to Spanish phrases or nouns.[27][28]
Negrito (femininenegrita) is also a term used in the Philippines to refer to the various darker-skinned native ethnic groups that partially descended from earlyAustralo-Melanesian migrations. These groups include theAeta,Ati,Mamanwa, and theBatak, among others. Despite physical appearances, they all speakAustronesian languages and are genetically related to otherAustronesian Filipinos. The island ofNegros is named after them.[29] The termNegrito has entered scientific usage in the English language based on the original Spanish/Filipino usage to refer to similar populations in South and Southeast Asia.[30] However, the appropriateness of using the word to bundle people of similar physical appearances has been questioned as genetic evidence show they do not have close shared ancestry.[31][32]
InItalian,negro was the archaic form of the adjectivenero; as such, the previous form can still be found in literary texts or in surnames (cfr. the English-language surnameBlack), while the latter form is the only one currently used today. However, the word could also be used as a noun and at a certain point it was commonly used as term equivalent to Englishnegro, but without its offensive connotation. However, under influence from English-speaking cultures, by the 1970s it had been replaced withnero anddi colore.Nero was considered a better translation of the English wordblack, whiledi colore is a loan translation of the English wordcolored.[33]
The noun is considered offensive today,[34][35][36] but some attestations of the previous use can still be found.[37]
InItalian law, Act No. 654 of 13 October 1975 (known as the "Reale Act"), as amended by Act No. 205 of 25 June 1993 (known as the "Mancino Act") and Act No. 85 of 24 February 2006, criminalizes incitement to and racial discrimination itself, incitement to and racial violence itself, the promotion of ideas based on racial superiority or ethnic or racist hatred and the setting up or running of, participation in or support to any organisation, association, movement or group whose purpose is the instigation of racial discrimination or violence.[38][39] As theCouncil of Europe noted in its 2016 report, "the wording of the Reale Act does not include language as ground of discrimination, nor is [skin] color included as a ground of discrimination."[39] However, theSupreme Court, in affirming a lower-court decision, declared that the use of the termnegro by itself, if it has a clearly offensive intention, may be punishable by law,[40] and is considered anaggravating factor in acriminal prosecution.[41]
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In theFrench language, the existential concept ofnegritude ('blackness') was developed by the Senegalese politicianLéopold Sédar Senghor. The word can still be used as a synonym ofsweetheart in some traditional LouisianaFrench creole songs.[42] The wordnègre as a racial term fell out of favor around the same time as its English equivalentnegro. Its usage in French today (nègre littéraire) has shifted completely, to refer to aghostwriter (écrivain fantôme), i.e. one who writes a book on behalf of its nominal author, usually a non-literary celebrity. However,French Ministry of Culture guidelines (as well as other official entities ofFrancophone regions[43]) recommend the usage of alternative terms.
InHaitian Creole, the wordnèg (derived from the Frenchnègre referring to a dark-skinned man), can also be used for any man, regardless of skin color, roughly like the termsguy ordude inAmerican English.
In theRomanian language,negru can refer to either the color or a black person (as a neutral term).
TheDutch wordneger was considered to be a neutral term, but since the start of the 21st century it is increasingly considered to be hurtful, condescending and/or discriminatory. The consensus among language advice services of the Flemish Government and Dutch Language Union is to usezwarte persoon/man/vrouw ('black person/man/woman') to denote race instead.[44][45][46][47]
InGerman,Neger was considered to be a neutral term for black people, but gradually fell out of fashion in the 1970s.Neger is now mostly thought to be derogatory or racist. In 2014, theÖsterreichischer Presserat [de] (Austrian Press Council) claimed that the use of "Negerkinder" (negro children) in a magazine was discriminatory and offensive.[48] InBavaria andUpper Austria, amixed drink consisting of wheat beer and cola is traditionally called and sold asNeger, though many restaurateurs have supported renaming it to "Cola-Weißbier" after growing criticism of the name.[49][50]
In Denmark, usage ofneger is up for debate. Linguists and others argue that the word has a historical racist legacy that makes it unsuitable for use today. Mainly older people use the wordneger with the notion that it is a neutral word parallelingnegro. Relatively few young people use it, other than for provocative purposes in recognition that the word's acceptability has declined.[51]
InSwedish andNorwegian,neger used to be considered a neutral equivalent tonegro. However, the term gradually fell out of favor between the late 1960s and 1990s.[citation needed]
InWest Frisian, the wordneger is largely considered to be a neutral term for black people withAfrican roots.[52][53] The wordnikker (evil water spirit) is considered to be offensive and derogatory, but not necessarily racist due to the term's historic definition.[53]
In theFinnish language the wordneekeri (cognate withnegro) was long considered a neutral equivalent fornegro.[54] In 2002,neekeri's usage notes in theKielitoimiston sanakirja shifted from "perceived as derogatory by some" to "generally derogatory".[54] The name of a popular Finnish brand ofchocolate-coated marshmallow treats was changed by the manufacturers fromNeekerinsuukko (lit. 'negro's kiss', like the German version) toBrunbergin suukko ('Brunberg's kiss') in 2001.[54] A study conducted among native Finns found that 90% of research subjects considered the termsneekeri andryssä among the most derogatory epithets for ethnic minorities.[55]
InTurkish,zenci is the closest equivalent tonegro. The appellation was derived from the Arabiczanj forBantu peoples. It is usually used without any negative connotation.
In Russia, the termнегр (negr) was commonly used in theSoviet period without any negative connotation, and its use continues in this neutral sense. In modern Russian media,negr is used somewhat less frequently.Чёрный (chyorny, 'black') as an adjective is also used in a neutral sense, and conveys the same meaning asnegr, as inчёрные американцы (chyornye amerikantsy, 'black Americans'). Other alternatives tonegr areтемнокожий (temnokozhy, 'dark-skinned'),чернокожий (chernokozhy, 'black-skinned'). The latter two words are used as both nouns and adjectives. See alsoAfro-Russian.
The word Negro was adopted from Spanish and Portuguese
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.The case grew out of the boycott by [African-Americans] of segregated buses in Montgomery.
