| Nectanebo II | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Nakhthorheb | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 Head of Nectanebo II,Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Pharaoh | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Reign | 358–c.340 BC[1][2][3][4] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Predecessor | Teos | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Successor | Artaxerxes III | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Father | Tjahapimu | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Born | c. 380 BC[5] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Died | After 340 BC | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dynasty | Thirtieth Dynasty | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Nectanebo II (Egyptian:Nḫt-Ḥr-Ḥbt;Ancient Greek:ΝεκτανεβώςNectanebos) was the last native ruler ofancient Egypt, as well as the third and lastpharaoh of theThirtieth Dynasty, reigning from 358 to c.340 BC.
During the reign of Nectanebo II, Egyptian artists developed a specific style that left a distinctive mark on thereliefs of thePtolemaic Kingdom.[6] Like his indirect predecessorNectanebo I, Nectanebo II showed enthusiasm for many of thecults of the gods withinancient Egyptian religion, and more than a hundred Egyptian sites bear evidence of his attention.[7]
For several years, Nectanebo II was successful in keeping Egypt safe from theAchaemenid Empire.[8] However, he was betrayed by his former servant,Mentor of Rhodes, and ultimately defeated. The Achaemenids occupiedMemphis and then seized the rest of Egypt, incorporating the country into the Achaemenid Empire underArtaxerxes III. Nectanebo fled south.[9] His subsequent fate is unknown. He was the last native Egyptian to rule over Ancient Egypt.
Nectanebo is derived from the Greek form of his name,Nectanebо̄s (Νεκτανεβώς, orΝεκτανεβός in later sources). His Egyptian name wasNḫt-ḥr-Ḥbt (Nakht-hor-hebyt),[10] which means "victorious isHorus ofHebyt".[11] Although convention in English assigns identical names to him and his grandfather,Nectanebo I, the latter was in fact calledNectanebis (Νεκτάνεβις).[12]
Medieval Arab authors referred to him asNāqāṭānībās (Arabic:ناقاطانيباس).[13]
In 525 BC, Egypt was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. Because of internal struggles for the Persian imperial succession, Egypt managed to regain independence in 404 BC. In 389 BC, PharaohHakor negotiated a treaty withAthens and for three years (from 385 to 383 BC) managed to withstand Persian aggression.[14] However, following the conclusion of thePeace of Antalcidas in 387 BC between the Achaemenids and theGreek city-states, Egypt andCyprus became the only obstacles to Persian hegemony in the Mediterranean.
At the beginning of 360 BC, Nectanebo's predecessor,Teos, started preparations for war against intruders. In the same year, the Egyptian army set off, traveling along the coast by land and sea. Nectanebo II accompanied his uncle Teos in that campaign and was in charge of themachimoi.[15]
In an attempt to quickly raise finances for the war, Teos imposed taxes on Egyptians and seized temple property.[16] Egyptians, particularly the priests, resented these measures but supported Nectanebo II. Teos askedSpartan military leaderAgesilaus and Athenian generalChabrias to support him.[17] Agesilaus, however, said he was sent to aid Egypt and not to wage war against it.[17] Chabrias returned home with his mercenaries.[17] Teos decided to flee to the Achaemenid court, where he ultimately died of natural causes.
Nectanebo contended with an unnamed pretender to the throne from the town ofMendes, who proclaimed himself pharaoh.[17] The revolt was probably led by one of the descendants ofNepherites I, whose family had ruled the town before.[18] The claimant sent messengers to Agesilaus in an attempt to persuade Agesilaus to his side.[17] Agesilaus remained loyal to Nectanebo, fearing to become a turncoat. At one of the towns in theNile Delta, the troops of Nectanebo and Agesilaus were besieged by the usurper, who had gained many sympathisers. Despite the enemy's numerical superiority, Nectanebo and Agesilaus were victorious and the revolt was put down in the fall of 360 BC.[19]
Religion played an important part in Nectanebo's domestic policy. He began his reign by officiating over the funeral of anApis bull inMemphis. There, Nectanebo added a relief decoration to the eastern and westerntemples of Apis.[22] Among notable sanctuaries erected under Nectanebo II are a temple ofKhnum inAbu and a temple ofAmun atSekhtam. He also dedicated adioritenaos toAnhur-Shu (a fragment of it was found in the temples ofTjebnutjer).[6] Nectanebo II was responsible for the increasing popularity of theBuchis cult.[19] Under Nectanebo II a decree forbidding stone quarrying in the so-called "Mysterious Mountains" inAbydos was issued.[23]
Foreign affairs under Nectanebo II were thwarted by repeated Achaemenid attempts to reconquer Egypt. Before the accession of Nectanebo II to the throne, the Persians attempted to reclaim Egypt in 385, 383, and 373 BC. Nectanebo used the peace to build up a new army and employed Greek mercenaries, which was a common practice at the time. In about 351 BC, the Achaemenid Empire embarked on a new attempt to reclaim Egypt. After a year of fighting, Nectanebo and his allied generals,Diophantus of Athens [ca] and Lamius of Sparta, managed to defeat the Achaemenids. Having scored a resounding victory, Nectanebo II was acclaimed "Nectanebo the divine falcon" by his people, and cults were set up in his name.[24]
In 345/44 BC, Nectanebo supported thePhoenician rebellion against the Achaemenid Empire, led by the king ofSidon,Tennes,[25] and dispatched military aid in the form of 4,000 Greek mercenaries, led by Mentor of Rhodes.[26] However, having heard of the approach of the forces ofArtaxerxes III, Mentor opened communication with the Persians in collusion with Tennes.[26]
At the end of 344 BC, ambassadors of Artaxerxes III arrived in Greece, asking for the Greeks' participation in a campaign against Egypt.[27] Athens and Sparta treated the ambassadors with courtesy, but refrained from committing to an alliance against Egypt.[27] Other cities, however, decided to support the Persians:Thebes sent 1,000hoplites andArgos 3,000.[27]
In the winter of 343 BC, Artaxerxes set off for Egypt. The Egyptian army, headed by Nectanebo, consisted of 60,000 Egyptians, 20,000Libu, and as many Greek mercenaries.[28] In addition, Nectanebo had a number of flat-bottomed boats intended to prevent an enemy from entering the Nile mouths.[29] The vulnerable points along his Mediterranean sea border and east boundary were protected by strongholds, fortifications and entrenched camps.[29] Persian forces were strengthened by Mentor and his men, well acquainted with the eastern border of Egypt, and by 6,000Ionians.[26]
Nectanebo II was ultimately defeated and, in the summer of 342 BC, Artaxerxes entered Memphis[30] and installed asatrap.[31] Nectanebo fled toUpper Egypt and finally toNubia, where he was granted asylum. He, however, preserved a degree of power there for some time. With the help ofKhabash, Nectanebo made a vain attempt to regain the throne.[32]
Though placed in an unfortunate period of Egyptian history, and with his legacy perhaps marred by being the last pharaoh to rule an independent Egypt, Nectanebo was an extensive builder, likely on a scale that would equal many kings of the glory days of theNew Kingdom.[33] References to either Nectanebo II or his grandfather have been found almost ubiquitously at the premier religious centres, and the piety of the two kings matched those of the great kings of the past, attested to by the numerous monuments across Egypt bearing their names.[22] Nectanebo II, specifically, built and improved temples across the country, and he donated extensively to the priesthoods of the plethora of sites which he donated to. Nectanebo's name has been found atHeliopolis,Athribis, andBubastis in theNile Delta, among other places, but he built most extensively at Sebennytos,[34] including the modern site ofBehbeit El Hagar. The reliefs of the temples at Sebennytos would leave a distinct mark on the art of the laterPtolemaic Kingdom. The religious focus of his building campaigns, however, may not be solely due to sheer piety; because Nectanebo was an usurper, he likely sought to legitimise his rule over Egypt religiously.[33]
Except for the small-scalegreywacke statue in theMetropolitan Museum of Art, which shows Nectanebo II standing before the image ofHorus, no other annotated portraits of Nectanebo II are known.[35] In the greywacke statue, Nectanebo II is shown in anemes anduraeus. His bent arm with the sword stands for the hieroglyphnakht, the falcon represents Horus, while the hieroglyph in Nectanebo's right hand stands forheb.[36] Other portraits attributed to Nectanebo II (all featuring thekhepresh) include aquartzite head in the museum of theUniversity of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, abasalt head inAlexandria, agranite head acquired by theMuseum of Fine Arts, Boston and a damaged quartzite head.[35]
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In 1798,Napoleon captured the Egyptian city ofAlexandria.[37] Soon after, following theBattle of Alexandria in 1801, Napoleon's forces surrendered to the British, and conditionally turned over antiquities they had gathered from the ancient city. Notably, among these was theRosetta Stone, as well as a seven ton sarcophagus, covered in hieroglyphics. Soon after the British secured these, they were approached by locals who believed that this was the tomb ofAlexander the Great.[38] Thereafter, the sarcophagus was taken to London, where it still resides at theBritish Museum.[39]
For a time, the sarcophagus was believed to have belonged to Alexander. However, after the translation of the Rosetta Stone, the writings on the sarcophagus were deciphered, and it became clear the tomb was not fashioned for him. The hieroglyphics on the tomb were sections from theBook of What is in the Underworld, and contained thecartouche of Nectanebo II.[38] The tomb was likely created for Nectanebo, before going unused as he was overthrown and fled to Nubia.[40]
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It has been argued that the sarcophagus did indeed house the remains of Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great's body was temporarily entombed in Memphis following his death in 323 BC, andSaqqara is a suspected location of his temporary Memphite tomb. Nectanebo had erected a temple there, where he may have intended to be laid to rest. It is possible the tomb was vacant in Memphis at the same time Alexander's body was placed there. When Alexander's remains were moved to Alexandria in 280 BC, it may have been moved along with the sarcophagus.[38] In an article in the Egyptology journalKmt (fall 2020), Andrew Chugg showed that a 3rd century BC fragment of a high status Macedonian tomb found embedded in the foundations ofSt Mark's Basilica in Venice in 1960 (which was believed to have been brought over from Alexandria along with the relics of St. Mark in 828 AD) is an exact fit as part of a tomb-casing for the sarcophagus, sparking renewed claims that the sarcophagus once held Alexander's remains.[41]
At theAttarine Mosque, where it was found by Napoleon's men, holes had been drilled in the sarcophagus. It had been used as a ritual bath when Alexandria was under Islamic rule.[39]
There is an apocryphal tale appearing in the pseudo-historicalAlexander Romance that details another end for the last native pharaoh. Soon afterAlexander the Great's godhood was confirmed by theLibyan Sibyl ofZeus Ammon at theSiwa Oasis, a rumor was begun that Nectanebo II, following defeat in his last battle, did not travel to Nubia but instead to the court ofPhilip II of Macedon in the guise of an Egyptianmagician. There, while Philip was away on campaign, Nectanebo convinced Philip's wifeOlympias that Amun was to come to her and that they would father a son. Nectanebo, disguising himself as Amun, slept with Olympias and from this event came Alexander.[42]
This myth would hold strong appeal for the Egyptians, who desired continuity and harbored a strong dislike for foreign rule. In art of this event, Nectanebo is usually depicted as having dragon-like features, for example in theSpeculum Historiale.[43]
In the earlyPtolemaic tale of Nectanebo and Petesis,[44] preserved only in a Greek fragment from theSerapeum of Saqqara, the pharaoh has a prophetic dream ofIsis in which the godOnuris is angry with him because of his unfinished temple inSebennytos. Nectanebo calls in the best sculptor of the realm, Petesis, to finish the job, but he bungles his assignment when he gets drunk and chases a beautiful girl instead. Thenarrative ends abruptly here, but this is probably the preface to the fall of Egypt.[45]Al-Biruni'sA History of India reproduces the story.[46]
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The legend of Nectanebo (or Nectanebus, or Natanabo, as reported in some versions of theAlexander Romance) left a profound mark on European culture up to the Renaissance and beyond. It is no coincidence that this character is included in theSola Busca tarot (with the name Natanabo) together with other important "actors" of the same legend: Alexander, Philip of Macedon, Olympias and Ammon.[47] An alchemical interpretation of this character was provided by the Italian scholar Sofia Di Vincenzo in a study on the Sola Busca Tarot, where she explains that Natanabo represents a celestial messenger who came to earth with a gift, the helmet, which is a symbol of invulnerability and both physical and mental potency.[48]
It is worth noting that a series of gold staters apparently issued by Tachos' successor, Nectanebo II (361/60 – 343) bear hieroglyphs meaning 'good gold' (nefer nub)
Vincent de Beauvais, qui reprend cette tradition légendaire initiée par le Pseudo-Callisthène à la fin du III e siècle et suivie par un certain nombre d'auteurs médiévaux, raconte comment Olympias, abusée par les tours de magie de Nectanebo, a conçu Alexandre avec lui, sous la forme d'un dragon.
| Preceded by | Pharaoh of Egypt 358–340 BC | Succeeded by |
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