| Ndu | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | East Sepik Province, in theSepik River basin ofPapua New Guinea |
| Linguistic classification | Sepik
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | nduu1242 |
TheNdu languages are the best knownfamily of theSepik languages ofEast Sepik Province in northernPapua New Guinea.Ndu is the word for 'man' in the languages that make up this group. The languages were first identified as a related family by Kirschbaum in 1922.
Along with theArapesh languages, Ndu languages are among the best documented languages in theSepik basin, with comprehensive grammars available for many languages.[1]
A diagnostic innovative feature in the Ndu languages is the replacement of the proto-Sepik pronoun *wun ‘I’ with proto-Ndu *an ~ *na.[1]
Abelam is the most populous language, with about 45,000 speakers, thoughIatmül is better known to the outside world. There are eight to twelve Ndu languages; Usher (2020) counts nine:[2]
Also sometimes distinguished areKeak (close to Iatmul or Sos Kundi),Kwasengen (or Hanga Hundi, close to Ambulas),Burui (close to Gai Kundi), andSengo.
Most Sepik and neighboring languages have systems of threevowels,/ɨəa/, that are distinct only inheight. Phonetic[ieuo] are a result of palatal and labialassimilation of/ɨə/ to adjacent consonants. The Ndu languages may take this reduction a step further: In these languages,/ɨ/ is used as anepenthetic vowel to break upconsonant clusters incompound words. Within words,/ɨ/ only occurs between similar consonants, and seems to be explicable as epenthesis there as well, so that the only underlying vowels that need to be assumed are/ə/ and /a/. That is, the Ndu languages may be a rare case of a two-vowel system, the others being theArrernte andNorthwest Caucasian languages. However, contrasting analyses of these same languages may posit a dozen vowel monophthongs.[3]
For Ndu languages, the glottalized low vowel/a̭/ is often written as/aʔa/. This does not signify/a/ followed by aglottal stop and another/a/.[1]
Ndu languages mark first and second person possessors with -n, and third person possessors with -k.[1]
Ndu languages make use of the generallocative case suffix -mb (-m inManambu):[1]
Ndu languages have two dative-type case markers, with the forms and meanings varying across languages:[1]
Examples ofdative case markers inAmbulas andManambu:[1]
ndu
man
mbɨrɨ
takwə
woman
ndu mbɨrɨ takwə mbɨr-ət
man PL woman PL-ALL
‘toward the men and women’
ar-aːr yi-tɨk
lake-LINK.ALL go-1DU.SBJ.IMP
‘Let’s both go to the lake.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Dative case markers are also used to mark animate objects of transitive verbs, which is aSepik-Ramuareal feature. An example of theAmbulasallative case marker -t:[1]
wunɨ
ɲan-ɨt
child-ALL
kenək-kwə
scold-PRS
wunɨ ɲan-ɨt kenək-kwə
1SG child-ALL scold-PRS
‘I’m scolding the child.’
| Proto-Ndu | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Ndu languages |
Reconstructed proto-Ndu pronouns by Foley (2005):
| sg | du | pl | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *wɨn | *an | *nan |
| 2m | *mɨn | *mpɨr | *ŋkɨwr |
| 2f | *ɲɨn | ||
| 3m | *ntɨ | *ntəy | |
| 3f | *lɨ |
Note that there is a gender distinction for first-person pronouns.
Aphonological reconstruction of proto-Ndu has been proposed by Foley (2005). Lexical reconstructions from Foley (2005) are listed below.[4] The homeland of proto-Ndu is located just upstream ofAmbunti.[1]
| gloss | proto-Ndu | Manambu | Iatmul | Abelam | Sawos | Boiken | Ngala |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| one | *nək | nək | kɨta | nek | kɨtak | napə | nək |
| man | *ntɨw | ntiw | ntɨw | ntɨw | tɨw | riw | |
| water | *ŋkɨw | ŋkɨw | ŋkɨw | ŋkɨw | ŋkɨw | kɨw | ŋkɨw |
| rain | *mayt | war | mayk | mac | wirɨ | macɲ | mac |
| fire | *ya | ya | ya | ya | hwɨypa | ya | |
| sun | *ɲa | ɲə | ɲa | ɲa | ɲa | ɲa | |
| moon | *mpapmɨw | mpapɨw | mpwap | mpapmɨw | pwapwə | kamwɨ | |
| house | *ŋkəy | wɨy | ŋkəy | ŋkəy | ŋkay | kəy | ŋkəy |
| breast | *mɨwɲ | mɨwɲ | mɨpə | mɨwɲə | mwɨyɲ | mɨwɲ | |
| tooth | *nɨmpɨy | ɨwk | nɨmpɨy | nɨmpɨy | nɨmpɨy | nɨmpɨy | |
| bone | *apə | ap | avə | apə | yapə | ampɨ | |
| tongue | *tɨkŋa | tɨkalɨr | tɨkat | tɨkŋalɨn | tɨkŋalɨ | tɨkan | |
| eye | *mɨyR | mɨyr | mɨynɨy | mɨynɨy | mɨynɨy | mɨyl | |
| nose | *tam(w)ə | tam | tamə | tamə | tamə | tamwə | |
| leg | *man | man | man | man | man | man | rawɨ |
| ear | *wan | wan | wan | wan | wan | ||
| tree | *mɨy | mɨy | mɨy | mɨy | mɨy | mɨy | |
| name | *cɨ | cɨ | cɨ | ɨy | cɨ | cɨ | |
| pig | *mp(w)al | mpar | mpak | mpalɨ | pwalɨ | mpwal | |
| dog | *wac, *war | ac | warə | wacə | warə | pyəp | |
| snake | *kampwəy | kampay | kampwəy | kampwəy | hampwəy | mapwɨcɨ | |
| mosquito | *kɨvɨy | kɨvɨy | kɨvyə | kwɨyə | mɨkɨycɨ | cɨvyə | |
| see | *vɨ | vɨ | vɨ | vɨ | vɨ | təyf | |
| eat | *kɨ | kɨ | kɨ | kə | hə | kɨ | |
| go | *yɨ | yɨ | yɨ | yɨ | yɨ | yɨ | yɨ |
| come | *ya | ya | ya | ya | ya | ya | |
| sit | *rə | rɨ | rɨ | rə | rə | yəlkɨy | |
| stand | *rap(m) | rap | rap | rapm | rapm |