Etymologically, "ndombolo" derives fromKikongo, meaning "to ask or solicit".[17] Thelexicologist Arizona M. Baongoli, specializing inLingala, expounds that "ndombolo" encapsulates a genre of Congolese dance, literally meaning "gorilla" or "chimpanzee".[17] The dance choreography involves hip gyrations, showcasing the posterior while executing forward and backward movements. Baongoli posits that this stylized dance mimics gorillas' and chimpanzees' gait, dance, or movements duringcourtship rituals.[17] The Parisian writer Milau K. Lutumba elucidates that this metaphorical construct emerged as a collective expression of the Congolese populace's hope for an end to the brutality, terror, injustice, and misery perpetuated during the reign of presidentMobutu Sese Seko.[18] The genesis of the term coincided with Mobutu's ouster from power by theAlliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo, led byLaurent-Désiré Kabila.[18] In the aftermath of Mobutu's exile in May 1997, musicians immortalized Kabila as the embodiment of "ndombolo". Lutumba notes that this symbolic renaming marked a turning point in the country's history, signifying a desire for positive change and a departure from the oppressive era.[18] The term took on additional layers of meaning when president Kabila, seen for the first time on television in 1996, was immediately identified as a ndombolo—a dwarf, a characterization stemming from the extensive time he spent in the bush as a guerrilla fighter, highlighting his pliability, elasticity, and strategic intelligence, reminiscent of the smart monkeys often depicted in African tales.[18] In African folklore, the monkey character is portrayed as an intelligent figure who, through wit and cunning, prevails over larger, stronger animals such as lions and leopards.[18]
Ndombolo's dance style is characterized by convulsive and fast-paced hip movements with intricate steps, combining floating arm movements, whirling body rotations, and ape-like poses.[19][20] Men typically bend low and box in the air while women undulate their hips and bottoms with plenty of facial expressions.[19][21][22] The hip-swaying is often accompanied by synchronized footwork and precise leg movements while maintaining a relatively stationary upper body. Ndombolo is usually danced in pairs or groups. Dancers form close connections with their partners and engage incoquettish movements that reflect the connection present in the accompanying music.[19][23][21]
Meanwhile, the musical elements unfold in a freneticsébène, a cyclic repetition of a certain number of notes during the passage oftwo chords, with an emphasis on therhythm guitar.[20][24] This repetitivesoundscape gains momentum as thetempo intensifies, with the guitarist incorporating gimmicks andcaesuras to craft a distinctive sound.[25] The role of the guitarist is shared with anatalaku, a singer who, from the music's outset, directs the percussion, galvanizes the audience, and augments assertive rhythms through impassionedMC harangue.[25][20] The hypnotic sway of atalaku persists through powerful jolts of guitar and drums, emerging as the central pivot around which the rhythm revolves.[25]
Koffi Olomide and Wenge Musica played pivotal roles in the development of ndombolo music in the 1990s.
During the late 1960s and early 1970s,Zaïko Langa Langa revolutionizedCongolese rumba by removing the horn section andwind instruments, long established as staples of earlier rumba traditions, and elevating thesnare drum and electric guitars.[26][27][28][21]Nelson George notes that this transformation resulted in a high-octane auditory quality that produced hits anddance crazes that gained popularity across Africa and major European cities, launching the careers of many homegrown artists, most notablyworld music singerPapa Wemba.[21] However, the fiscal insolvency that befell Congolese record labels such as Parions-Congo, Parions Mondenge, International Don-Dass, and Molende Kwi Kwi following the collapse of the Mazadis, Sophinza S.P.R.L., and Izason recording labels, coupled with the transition fromvinyl tocompact discs, led to national phonographic production sinking into lethargy during the 1980s.[29] Foreign labels specializing in African andCaribbean music took over, starting withSonodisc and Sonima (France). However, this also gave theDemocratic Republic of the Congo a substantive platform for the proliferation and cultivation of homegrown artists.[29]
By the end of the 1990s, musicians such as Radja Kula, Wenge Musica, Koffi Olomide, and Général Defao joined Sonodisc, orchestrating a paradigm shift that transformed soukous into raunchy, fast-paced dance music, renaming itndombolo.[21][30]
The genre's paternity is a subject of contentious debate, with some attributing it to Radja Kula in 1995,[31] and others creditingWenge Musica.[32][33] Researcher Manda Tchebwa posits that Wenge Musica's generation was instrumental in shaping the style.[20][34] TheBBC has also credited the band, acknowledging them as pioneers of the style, with their rapid hip movements and body swaying, occasionally accompanied by abrupt gestures.[35]
Female band members of Orchestre 485 Music performing ndombolo dance inAbidjan
Ndombolo quickly established itself as a popular African dance style across Africa and into the continent's diaspora in Belgium, France, the UK, Germany, Canada, and the United States.[36][21][30][37] In January 1997, JB Mpiana's ndombolo-infused debut album,Feux de l'amour, became the first ndombolo album to attain a gold record, with over 150,000 copies sold. This success reverberated inCentral Africa,East Africa, France, and Belgium, which in turn augmented ndombolo's visibility in francophone and anglophone countries.[38][39]
Koffi Olomide's ndombolo albumLoi, released in December 1997, also secured a gold record, with 25,000 copies sold in France and 105,000 internationally.[40][41] The album's eponymous single became synonymous with ndombolo dance, making waves across Africa and France with a combination of the singer's deepbaritone voice and sophisticatedarrangements, blendingold-school rumba and keyboard melodies and ending in a guitar climax.[42][43][44] During this time, ndombolo made significant inroads intoEast Africa, particularlyKenya, where dance floors became overcrowded due to its surging popularity, and the "influx of waist-wriggling dancers" became a common sight.[45] Congolese bands actively sought performance contracts from bar owners inWestern Kenya, with ndombolo and the local genrebenga gaining widespread traction inKisumu and its neighboring towns. InAwendo, a variety of Congolese and local musicians, includingSuper Mazembe, Eden Musica, T.P. Bilenge, Bikassy Mandeko Bijos, and Banalola, graced the music scene.[45] TheDaily Nation reported that local youth in Kisumu were rapidly adopting the style, with groups like Orchestra Mass System, whose members embraced Congolese personas such asLa Sape and excelled in the ndombolo dance style.[45] Congolese bands like Chock Generation, Amite Musica, and Chachu La Musica, led by former Super Mazembe rhythm guitarist Loboko Bua Mangala, also had a notable presence.[45]
Ndombolo dancer and singer Willy TGV performing at the Anoumabo Urban Music Festival
On 29 August 1998, Olomide became the first Congolese artist to sell out theOlympia Hall in Paris.[46] The concert, featuring ndombolo-infused tracks, is widely acknowledged as crucial in popularizing the genre.[46][47] In December 1998, theExtra Musica ensemble from theRepublic of the Congo released their fourth studio album,Etat-Major, marking the first ndombolo record to attain broad success in English-speaking African countries. The album's eponymous single is characterized by multi-thematic lyrics, catchy melodies, and distorted guitar riffs.[48][49]
Awilo Longomba played a significant role in popularizing ndombolo music much acrossWest Africa.[50][51] He has characterized his music as "techno-soukouss", signifying a new variation of soukous that integrates elements oftechno music into ndombolo, sometimes fused withelectro,dance music, orAfro zouk.[52] In 1998, Longomba released his second studio album, titledCoupé Bibamba. The eponymous track, featuringJocelyne Béroard, achieved widespread success in Africa and Europe as well as within diaspora communities globally, and remains popular in Africa.[53][54][55] The song's broad appeal led to renditions in various native languages, includingYoruba andNigerian Pidgin.[56][57] The album's success bolstered Longomba's visibility, culminating in three consecutive sold-out concerts atLagos National Stadium.[54][58][59][60] In 2003, Longomba became the first Congolese musician to perform at Nigeria's 22,000-seatNnamdi Azikiwe Stadium in Enugu, followed by the 30,000-seatJolly Nyame Stadium in Jalingo, making him the first Congolese artist to dominate Nigerian airwaves.[61][62][63][64]
Général Defao was equally instrumental in expanding ndombolo's reach into East Africa. In 1998, he achieved success with chart-topping hits such as "Nakusema Nikutaka", featuring Suke Chile.[65] That year, he performed inMombasa, followed by appearances inNairobi andKisumu.[65] Around the same period,Papa Wemba played at Nairobi'sCarnivore restaurant, accompanied by hisViva La Musica ensemble.[65]
In 1999,Wenge Musica Maison Mère debuted their ndombolo-infused albumSolola Bien!, which achieved gold certification and experienced immediate success in Africa and France.[66][67] The record's eponymous single, along withFerré Gola's "Vita Imana", garnered significant popularity in France.[68][69][70][71] Notably, Wenge Musica Maison Mère's track "Augustine" was recognized as one of the "five songs that made Congo dance" by the French pan-African weekly news magazineJeune Afrique.[72]
Laurent-Désiré Kabila's rise to power in Congo prompted speculation and misinformation, with rumors of impending bans onminiskirts,women's pants, and love song on airwaves, as well as the closure of nightclubs.[73][74] In 1998,Libération reported a perceptible decrease in the number of soukous orchestras in Kinshasa, along with strict regulation ofpublic spaces.[73] Only a few nightclubs, including le Circus, le Seguin, le Gin Fizz, l'Imprévu, l'Atmosphère, le Savanana, and le M16 remained accessible for public revelry.[73]
By the early 2000s, numerous African television stations banned ndombolo due to its perceived "pornographic" nature, alleging that it compromised youth morality. In Cameroon, ndombolo faced prohibition for being deemed excessively erotic and obscene. Critics contended that Cameroon's imposition emanated from the belief that ndombolo encroached upon local music genres likemakossa andbikutsi.[75][76][77] Paradoxically, despite prohibitions, many artists continued to release records that dominated discos, bars, and clubs across Africa, characterized by their distinctive bass, tingling guitars, and soaring falsettos. In Europe, the sound became synonymous with African music, catapulting artists like Papa Wemba into high demand.[78][79][80]
JB Mpiana (left),Werrason (center), andKoffi Olomide (right) emerged as the most prominent figures in the resurgence of ndombolo in the early 2000s and 2010s.
On 19 February 2000, Olomide made history as the first African solo artist as well as ndombolo artist to headline a sold-out performance at thePalais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy in Paris (now Accor Arena), selling 17,000 tickets solely throughword-of-mouth promotion. His performance garnered the attention of ndombolo enthusiasts and set a precedent for subsequent Congolese musicians.[81][82][83] According to a report byLibération, more than 5,000 people were unable to gain entry due to seating capacity constraints.[82] On 16 September 2000,Wenge Musica Maison Mère followed suit, becoming the second African act to achieve a sold-out concert at the same venue.[84][85][86] On 26 June 2001,Werrason released his debut album, titledKibuisa Mpimpa (alternately known asOpération dragon).[87][88][89] The record, a fusion of ndombolo and Congolese rumba, achieved immense popularity in Africa, earning Werrason two consecutive Kora Awards, for Best Male Artist of Africa and Best Male Artist of Central Africa, in the same year.[90][91] On 22 September 2001, JB Mpiana became the third Congolese artist to perform at Paris-Bercy, captivating his audience with several ndombolo tracks.[92][93] During this period, ndombolo gained significant traction in Paris, withRadio France Internationale reporting that it had garnered substantial attention beyond the "Afro community circles of Paris" in April 2003.[94] The genre was noted to be "seducing the post-black-white-beur generation, in the name of an increasingly strong discourse on diversity".[94] Concurrently, the twalatsa dance, loosely derived from ndombolo, began infiltrating the music industries of severalSouthern African nations.[95] This dance, characterized by vigorous waist movements, signified a cultural shift, with localgospel artists integrating elements ofCongolese rumba and ndombolo into their musical compositions.[95]
Members of Orchestre Kitoko Malumu performing a ndombolo dance
In December 2003, Wenge Musica Maison Mère released a two-trackmaxi-single titledTindika Lokito, which included the eponymous song, used in promotion for the beer brandSkol, along with "Allez À L'Ecole".[96][97][98] "Tindika Lokito", composed by Werrason, boosted ndombolo's appeal in Central Africa,French-speaking regions of West Africa, East Africa, France, and Belgium. Its success led to Werrason receiving two consecutive Kora Awards, for Best Male African Artist and Best Central African Male.[96][99] Following this, in December 2004, Koffi Olomide released the double albumMonde Arabe, noted for its fusion of ndombolo and Congolese rumba with acoustic guitar interludes,[100] which sparked a fashion trend known as "Sabot Monde Arabe" that featured round-toed slippers adorned with pearls, covering thephalanges andmetatarsals of the foot.[101][102]
By 2007,Faustin Linyekula emerged as the genre's most influential dancer and choreographer, instrumental in popularizing its dance form in France.[103][104] In an online interview, Linyekula elucidated that the genre's dance informs his "choreographic process and cultural identity", drawing from the dynamism of ndombolo dance to explore the "carnal possibilities central to ndombolo's power and popularity".[105] In July 2007, his Festival des mensonges was presented at theFestival d'Avignon, along withDinozord: The Dialogue Series (2006), and later won the 2007Principal Prince Claus Award.[106][104] On 15 August 2009, Wenge Musica Maison Mère published the albumTechno Malewa Sans Cesse volume 1, which also blended ndombolo and Congolese rumba.[107][108] The album's hit single "Techno Malewa Mécanique", featuringatalakus Brigade Sarbati and Lobeso, gained substantial popularity across Africa and among the continent's diaspora in Belgium and France, leading to a performance atZénith de Paris.[109] The song was also awarded Best Sound at the 2014Nollywood and African Film Critics Awards in the United States, five years after its debut.[110] They followed this withTechno malewa suite et fin volume 1, released in August 2011, a double album predominantly blending Congolese rumba and ndombolo, which peaked at number two in the Congolese Hit Parade of the newspaperL'Avenir, afterBande Annonce byJossart N'yoka Longo ofZaïko Langa Langa.[111][112]
Fally Ipupa's "Original" became a hit in 2014, reigniting interest in the genre after prominent ndombolo artists migrated to Europe.[113][114][115][116][117][118] By the end of 2014,Fabregas Le Métis Noir debuted his seven-track EP, titledAnapipo, which achieved great success and garnered recognition throughout Africa. The album's standout ndombolo-infused single "Mascara" sparked the Ya Mado dance trend, leading to the #YaMadoChallenge onsocial media, where numerous online personalities emulated the dance and nominated others to participate.[119][120] The song also brought attention to the Africandashiki, a colorfulpatterned shirt that became colloquially known as "Ya Mado", in reference to the accompanying dance.[121] However, the song faced a government ban on airplay in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, citing the Ya Mado dance as "indecent".[122][123][124]
Koffi Olamide's ndombolo-inspired song "Selfie" (alternately known as "Ekoti té"), from his 2015 studio album13ème Apôtre, rapidly became a viral sensation, amassing over a million views onYouTube within three weeks of its release.[125][126] The accompanying hashtag #OpérationSelfie gained traction across various social media platforms and was endorsed by celebrities such as French singerMatt Pokora, Ivorian footballerDidier Drogba, andFrench-Congolese footballerBlaise Matuidi.[127][126][125] Meanwhile,Félix Wazekwa's breakthrough single "Fimbu", steeped in ndombolo rhythms, gained immense popularity during the lead-up to the2016 African Nations Championship and emerged as a celebratory anthem for theCongolese national football team during the2017 Africa Cup of Nations, inspiring a synchronized dance among players to commemorate each goal scored.[128][129][130][131][132]
In June 2018,BM released a remix of his single "Rosalina", featuring Awilo Longomba, which gave rise to the "#RosalinaChallenge" trend onTikTok,Instagram, and YouTube. This trend features exhilarating ndombolo motions synchronized with pulsating Congolese rhythms, encapsulating the precise articulation of the entire physical form, from limbs to waist.[133][134][135][136][137] "Ecole", from Fally's November 2018 album,Control, introduced a new dance known as the "Ecole dance", synonymous with ndombolo dance moves, embraced by numerous dancers on social networks.[138][139][140]
Emerging ndombolo artists likeInnoss'B,Robinio Mundibu,Gaz Mawete, and the Paris-basedYa Levis Dalwear surfaced. In September 2019, Inoss'B released a remix of his song "Yope", featuring Tanzanian singerDiamond Platnumz, which became one of the most-viewed ndombolo songs on YouTube as well as the first song in East and Central Africa to surpass 150 Million views.[141][142] The "Yope dance challenge" emerged on various social media platforms as a result of the remix, influencing Diamond Platnumz to incorporate dance sequences from it into his subsequent release, "Baba Lao".[143] In June 2020, the song earned Innocent a nomination forBest New International Act at theBET Awards.[144][145][146][147][148]
In November 2020, Diamond Platnumz released a successful crossover ndombolo-infusedSwahili song, "Waah", featuring Koffi Olomide. It became the firstSub-Saharan African song to reach two million views on YouTube in less than 24 hours.[149][150][151] In June 2021, Tanzanian singerAli Kiba released his single "Ndombolo", featuring K2ga, Tommy Flavour, and Abdu Kiba, which was later used as a sample song for the ndombolo music genre on theGrammy Awards website.[152]
Congolese-French singerDadju performing at the Venoge Festival inPenthaz, Switzerland
On 24 September 2021,Congo-Brazzaville singer Roga Roga and Extra Musica released the single "Bokoko", from their eponymous EP.[153][154][155][156][157] It quickly became a hit in Kinshasa, where it was played in various bars and clubs, and it gained prominence in French-speaking and Anglophone African regions.[158][159][160] "Bokoko" became the first ndombolo hit to receive three consecutive awards, including the Kundé d'Or for Charismatic Leader of Central Africa inBurkina Faso, the Special Prize for selling African music worldwide at the 2021 Primud inIvory Coast, and the Francophonie Prize at Lokumu, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[161][162][163]
On 15 May 2022,French-Congolese singerDadju released the ndombolo single "Ambassadeur", later certified gold, from his albumCullinan, shortly after being appointed as a cultural ambassador for the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[164][165][166][167] The song, featuring the Paris-based Congoleseatalaku Brigade Sarbati, quickly became popular and amassed eleven million views on YouTube within a month.[168][169]
On 16 December 2022, Congo-Brazzaville singer-songwriter Afara Tsena Fukuchima debuted his single "Afro Mbokalisation", which fuses elements of ndombolo, particularly thesebene instrumental section, withcoupé-décalé, characterized by a predominance of piano and guitar riffs.[170][171][172] "Afro Mbokalisation" accrued over three million views in a single month and catalyzed the popularization of themopacho dance through TikTok dance challenges.[173] This dance, originally conceived in 1990 by theBrazzaville artist Sixte Singha, was subsequently embraced by prominent artists fromCongo-Kinshasa, such as Fally Ipupa, Tidiane Mario, and Gaz Mawete, as well as Ivorian singerSerge Beynaud.[174][175]
On 6 October 2023, another Franco-Congolese singer,Jungeli, premiered his single "Petit Génie", which included guest appearances byImen Es,Alonzo, Abou Debeing, and Lossa.[176][177] Co-produced by Next Génération, 2054 Records, and Fulgu Prod, "Petit Génie" quickly gained traction. Excerpts of the single were prematurely leaked and extensively shared on TikTok, leading to a surge in popularity even before its official release.[178][179] The song achieved commercial success in France, toppingSNEP's Top Singles chart for 18 non-consecutive weeks and breaking records for airplay, streams, and digital downloads.[178] It came close to the absolute record, held by American singer-songwriterPharrell Williams' "Happy", which had spent 22 non-consecutive weeks at the top of the charts.[180] "Petit Génie" was honored with the Best Piece of African or African-inspired Music prize at Les Flammes.[181][182]
French rapperNaza pioneered the infusion of ndombolo rhythms into French rap. In September 2017, he released his Platinum-certified albumIncroyable, predominantly blending ndombolo rhythms. Adorned with lead guitar tributes to musical collectives like Wenge Musica, Extra Musica, Quartier Latin, and Viva La Musica, the record emerged as a defining ndombolo-rap fusion in France.[184][185][186] This success paved the way for subsequent hits like Dadju's "Mafuzzy Style" (2018), Belgian rapperDamso's "Même issue", andMaître Gims with "Na Lingui Yo"[42][187][188][189]
Ndombolo has exerted a significant influence on the evolution of the Ivorian dance style known ascoupé-décalé. Emerging in the early 2000s, coupé-décalé extensively draws from theZouglou genre of Ivory Coast while also integrating elements of ndombolo, techno, andtribal house music.[190][191][192] The influence of ndombolo is evident in the percussion-driven, repetitive rhythms and the emphasis on intricate hip and body movements that characterize coupé-décalé.[184][193] Coupé-décalé essentially accelerates the speed of the ndombolo beat, particularly at the level of thebass drum andsnare drum, creating a fast-paced cadence.[184] Ethnomusicology professor Ty-Juana Taylor of theUniversity of California posits that ndombolo laid the groundwork for the coupé-décalé dance,[193] a perspective echoed by Ivorian researcher El Hadji Yaya Koné.[194] Coupé-décalé artists frequently incorporate ndombolo-inspired dance steps and choreography into their performances, resulting in a fusion of the two styles.[193]
This view is further supported by Ivorian music journalist Diarra Tiemoko ofSoir Info, who notes the early use of pseudo-Lingala language in coupé-décalé songs during the genre's evolution.[184][195] Tiemoko also highlights the influence of Congolese artists such as DJ Shega Mokonzi and Ronaldo R9 on Ivorian DJs, particularly in the early albums released in Ivory Coast.[184] The incorporation ofatalaku entertainers, whose role is to enhance songs and engage listeners in dancing, has been pivotal in coupé-décalé's early development.[196][195][197] The concept ofatalaku was first employed by the Congolese bandZaïko Langa Langa, pioneered by membersNono Monzuluku andBébé Atalaku in the 1980s.[196][198] In one of their early compositions featuring these animators, the chant "Atalaku! Tala! Atalaku mama, Zekete" (Look at me! Look! Look at me, mama! Zekete!) was repeated, commanding attention.[199][198] Coupé-décalé musicianDouk Saga's debut single, "Sagacité", is recognized for its incorporation ofatalaku.[196][200] Douk Saga, initially in Paris in the early 2000s, developed this novel mode of musical expression, combining the Congolese sartorialsubculture ofLa Sape with the percussion of soukous and ndombolo.[200][201][202] Coupé-décalé rapidly gained international acclaim through DJs, spreading throughout West Africa and eventually reaching Central Africa.[201] In an interview withRadio France Internationale,DJ Arafat, a renowned Ivorian artist, acknowledged the influence ofatalaku on his style.[203][204]
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