| Nautilus | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Nautilus belauensis | |
Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Mollusca |
| Class: | Cephalopoda |
| Subclass: | Nautiloidea |
| Order: | Nautilida |
| Infraorder: | Nautilaceae |
| Family: | Nautilidae Blainville, 1825 |
| Genera | |
†Carinonautilus | |
| Synonyms[2] | |
| |
Anautilus (from Latin nautilus 'paper nautilus', from Ancient Greek ναυτίλοςnautílos 'little sailor')[3] is any of the various species within thecephalopod familyNautilidae. This is the sole extant family of the superfamilyNautilaceae and the suborderNautilina.
It comprises nine living species in two genera, thetype of which is the genusNautilus. Though it more specifically refers to the speciesNautilus pompilius, the namechambered nautilus is also used for any of the Nautilidae. All are protected underCITES Appendix II.[4] Depending on species, adult shell diameter is between 10 and 25 cm (4 and 10 inches).
The Nautilidae, both extant and extinct, are characterized byinvolute or more or less convoluted shells that are generally smooth, with compressed or depressedwhorl sections, straight to sinuous sutures, and a tubular, generally centralsiphuncle.[5] Having survived relatively unchanged for hundreds of millions of years, nautiluses represent the only living members of the subclassNautiloidea, and are often considered "living fossils".
The word nautilus is derived from the Greek wordναυτίλοςnautílos "sailor", it originally referred to a type of octopus of the genusArgonauta, also known as 'paper nautilus', which were thought to use two of their arms as sails.[6][7]
The arm crown of modern nautilids (generaNautilus andAllonautilus) is very distinct in comparison to coleoids. Unlike the ten-armedDecabrachia or the eight-armedOctopodiformes, nautilus may possess any number of tentacles (cirri) from 50 to over 90 tentacles depending on the sex and individual.[8][9] These tentacles are classified into three distinct categories: ocular, digital, and labial (buccal).[10] There are two sets of ocular tentacles: one set in front of the eye (pre-ocular) and one set behind the eye (post-ocular). The digital and labial tentacles are arrayed circularly around the mouth, with the digital tentacles forming the outermost ring and the labial tentacles in between the digital tentacles and the mouth. There are 19 pairs of digital tentacles that, together with the ocular tentacles, make up the 42 appendages that are visible when observing the animal (not counting the modified tentacles that form the hood). The labial tentacles are generally not visible, being smaller than the digital tentacles, and more variable both in number and in shape.[9][10][11] Males modify three of their labial tentacles into thespadix, which deliversspermatophores into the female during copulation.[9]
The tentacle is composed of two distinct structures: the first structure, a fleshy sheath that contains the second structure: an extendablecirrus (plural: cirri).[10][12] The sheaths of the digital tentacles are fused at their base into a single mass referred to as the cephalic sheath. The digital cirri can be fully withdrawn into the sheath and are highly flexible, capable of extending just over double their fully retracted length and show a high degree of allowable bendability and torsion.[12] Despite not having suckers, the digital tentacles show strong adhesive capabilities. Adhesion is achieved through the secretion of a neutral (rather than acidic)mucopolysaccharide from secretory cells in the ridges of the digital cirri.[13][14][15] Release is triggered through contraction of the tentacle musculature rather than the secretion of a chemical solvent, similar to the adhesion/release system inEuprymna, though it is unclear whether these adhesives arehomologous.[15][16] The ocular tentacles show no adhesive capability but operate as sensory organs. Both the ocular tentacles and the eight lateral digital tentacles show chemoreceptive abilities; the preocular tentacles detect distant odor and the lateral digital tentacles detect nearby odor.[17][18]
Theradula is wide and distinctively has nine teeth.
The mouth consists of aparrot-like beak made up of two interlocking jaws capable of ripping the animal's food— mostly crustaceans— from the rocks to which they are attached.[19]: p. 105 Males can be superficially differentiated from females by examining the arrangement of tentacles around the buccal cone: males have aspadix organ (shaped like a spike or shovel) located on the left side of the cone making the cone look irregular, whereas the buccal cone of the female isbilaterally symmetrical.[19]: pp. 115–130
The crop is the largest portion of the digestive tract, and is highly extensible. From the crop, food passes to the small muscular stomach for crushing, and then goes past a digestive caecum before entering the relatively brief intestine.
Like all cephalopods, the blood of the nautilus containshemocyanin, which is blue in its oxygenated state. There are two pairs ofgills which are the only remnants of the ancestralmetamerism to be visible in extant cephalopods.[20]: 56 Oxygenated blood arrives at the heart through four ventricles and flows out to the animal's organs through distinct aortas but returns through veins which are too small and varied to be specifically described. The one exception to this is the vena cava, a single large vein running along the underside of the crop into which nearly all other vessels containing deoxygenated blood empty. All blood passes through one of the four sets of filtering organs (composed of one pericardial appendage and two renal appendages) upon leaving the vena cava and before arriving at the gills for re-oxygenation. Blood waste is emptied through a series of corresponding pores into thepallial cavity.
The central component of the nautilus nervous system is the oesophagealnerve ring which is a collection ofganglia,commissures, and connectives that together form a ring around the animal's oesophagus. From this ring extend all of the nerves forward to the mouth, tentacles, and funnel; laterally to the eyes andrhinophores; and posteriorly to the remaining organs.
The nerve ring does not constitute what is typically considered a cephalopod "brain": the upper portion of the nerve ring lacks differentiated lobes, and most of the nervous tissue appears to focus on finding and consuming food (i.e., it lacks a "higher learning" center). Nautili also tend to have rather short memory spans, and the nerve ring is not protected by any form of brain case.[21]
Nautili are the sole living cephalopods whose bony body structure is externalized as a planispiralshell. The animal can withdraw completely into its shell and close the opening with a leathery hood formed from two specially foldedtentacles. The shell is coiled,aragonitic,[22]nacreous and pressure-resistant, imploding at a depth of about 800 m (2,600 ft). The nautilus shell is composed of two layers: amatte white outer layer with dark orange stripes,[23] and a striking whiteiridescent inner layer. The innermost portion of the shell is a pearlescent blue-gray. Theosmeña pearl, contrarily to its name, is not apearl, but ajewellery product derived from this part of the shell.[citation needed]
Internally, the shell divides intocamerae (chambers), the chambered section being called thephragmocone. The divisions are defined bysepta, each of which is pierced in the middle by a duct, thesiphuncle. As the nautilus matures, it creates new, larger camerae and moves its growing body into the larger space, sealing the vacated chamber with a new septum. The camerae increase in number from around 4 at the moment ofhatching to 30 or more in adults.
The shell coloration also keeps the animalcryptic in the water. When seen from above, the shell is darker in color and marked with irregular stripes, which helps it blend into the dark water below. The underside is almost completely white, making the animal indistinguishable from brighter waters near the surface. This mode ofcamouflage is calledcountershading.
The nautilus shell presents one of the finest natural examples of alogarithmic spiral, although it is not agolden spiral. The use of nautilus shells in art and literature is covered atnautilus shell.
N. pompilius is the largest species in the genus. One form fromIndonesia and northernAustralia, once calledN. repertus, may reach 25.4 cm (10.0 in) in diameter.[24] However, most nautilus species never exceed 20 cm (8 in).Nautilus macromphalus is the smallest species, usually measuring only 16 cm (6+1⁄2 in). A dwarf population from theSulu Sea (Nautilus pompilius suluensis) is even smaller, with a mean shell diameter of 11.56 cm (4.55 in).[25]
To swim, the nautilus draws water into and out of the living chamber with itshyponome, which usesjet propulsion. This mode of propulsion is generally considered inefficient compared to propulsion with fins orundulatory locomotion, however, the nautilus has been found to be particularly efficient compared to other jet-propelled marine animals likesquid andjellyfish, or evensalmon at low speeds.[26] It is thought that this is related to the use of asymmetrical contractile cycles and may be an adaptation to mitigate metabolic demands and protect againsthypoxia when foraging at depth.[27] While water is inside the chamber, thesiphuncle extractssalt from it and diffuses it into the blood.
The animal adjusts itsbuoyancy only in long term density changes byosmosis, either removing liquid from its chambers or allowing water from the blood in the siphuncle to slowly refill the chambers. This is done in response to sudden changes in buoyancy that can occur with predatory attacks of fish, which can break off parts of the shell. This limits nautiluses in that they cannot operate under the extremehydrostatic pressures found at depths greater than approximately 800 metres (2,600 ft), and in fact implode at about that depth, causing instant death.[25] The gas also contained in the chambers is slightly below atmospheric pressure at sea level.[28] The maximum depth at which they can regulate buoyancy by osmotic removal of chamber liquid is not known.[29]
The nautilus has the extremely rare ability to withstand being brought to the surface from its deep natural habitat without suffering any apparent damage from the experience. Whereas fish or crustaceans brought up from such depths inevitably arrive dead, a nautilus will be unfazed despite the pressure change of as much as 80standard atmospheres (1,200 psi). The exact reasons for this ability, which is thought to be coincidental rather than specifically functional, are not known, though the perforated structure of the animal'svena cava is thought to play an important role.[19]: p. 188
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Unlike many other cephalopods, nautiluses do not have what many consider to be good vision; theireye structure is highly developed but lacks a solidlens. Whereas a sealed lens allows for the formation of highly focused and clear, detailed surrounding imagery, nautiluses have a simplepinhole eye open to the environment which only allows for the creation of correspondingly simple imagery.
Instead of vision, the animal is thought to useolfaction (smell) as the primary sense forforaging and for locating and identifying potential mates.[30]
The "ear" of the nautilus consists of structures calledotocysts located immediately behind the pedalganglia near the nerve ring. They are oval structures densely packed with ellipticalcalcium carbonate crystals.
Nautiluses are much closer to the first cephalopods that appeared about 500 million years ago than the early modern cephalopods that appeared maybe 100 million years later (ammonoids andcoleoids). They have a seemingly simplebrain, not the large complex brains ofoctopus,cuttlefish andsquid, and had long been assumed to lack intelligence. But the cephalopod nervous system is quite different from that of other animals, and recent experiments have shown not only memory, but a changing response to the same event over time.[31][32][33]
In a study in 2008, a group of nautiluses (N. pompilius) were given food as a bright blue light flashed until they began to associate the light with food, extending their tentacles every time the blue light was flashed. The blue light was again flashed without the food 3 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour, 6 hours, 12 hours, and 24 hours later. The nautiluses continued to respond excitedly to the blue light for up to 30 minutes after the experiment. An hour later they showed no reaction to the blue light. However, between 6 and 12 hours after the training, they again responded to the blue light, but more tentatively. The researchers concluded that nautiluses had memory capabilities similar to the "short-term" and "long-term memories" of the more advanced cephalopods, despite having different brain structures.[31][32][33] However, the long-term memory capability of nautiluses was much shorter than that of other cephalopods. The nautiluses completely forgot the earlier training 24 hours later, in contrast to octopuses, for example, which can remember conditioning for weeks afterwards. However, this may be simply the result of theconditioning procedure being suboptimal for sustaining long-term memories in nautiluses. Nevertheless, the study showed that scientists had previously underestimated the memory capabilities of nautiluses.[33]
Nautiluses reproduce by layingeggs. Gravid females attach the fertilized eggs, either singly or in small batches, to rocks in warmer waters (21–25 Celsius), whereupon the eggs take eight to twelve months to develop until the 30-millimetre (1.2 in) juveniles hatch.[34] Females spawn once per year and regenerate theirgonads, making nautiluses the only cephalopods to presentiteroparity orpolycyclic spawning.[35]
Nautiluses aresexually dimorphic, in that males have four tentacles modified into an organ, called the "spadix", which transfers sperm into the female's mantle during mating. At sexual maturity, the male shell becomes slightly larger than the female's.[36] Males have been found to greatly outnumber females in practically all published studies, accounting for 60 to 94% of all recorded individuals at different sites.[25]
The lifespan of nautiluses may exceed 20 years, which is exceptionally lengthy for a cephalopod, many of whom live less than three even in captivity and under ideal living conditions.[37] However, nautiluses typically do not reach sexual maturity until they are about 15 years old, limiting their reproductive lifespan to often less than five years.[25]
Nautilus male has a reproductive organ namedVan der Hoeven's organ.Nautilus female has two reproductive organs whose functions are unknown, theOrgan of Valenciennes andOwen's laminated organ.[38]
Nautiluses are found only in theIndo-Pacific, from 30° N to 30° S latitude and 90° E to 175° E longitude. They inhabit the deep slopes ofcoral reefs.
Nautiluses usually inhabit depths of several hundred metres. It has long been believed that nautiluses rise at night to feed, mate, and layeggs, but it appears that, in at least some populations, the vertical movement patterns of these animals are far more complex.[39] The greatest depth at which a nautilus has been sighted is 703 m (2,306 ft) (N. pompilius).[39] Implosion depth for nautilus shells is thought to be around 800 m (2,600 ft).[25][39] Only inNew Caledonia, theLoyalty Islands, andVanuatu can nautiluses be observed in very shallow water, at depths of as little as 5 m (15 ft).[29][39] This is due to the cooler surface waters found in these southern hemisphere habitats as compared to the many equatorial habitats of other nautilus populations – these usually being restricted to depths greater than 100 m (300 ft).[29][39] Nautiluses generally avoid water temperatures above 25 °C (75 °F).[39]
While nautiloids were once common worldwide, their numbers declined and their distribution became restricted to their current habitats during the Pleistocene, largely due to the diversification of pinnipeds.[40]
Nautiluses are scavengers and opportunistic predators.[41][42] They eatlobstermolts,hermit crabs, andcarrion of any kind.[29]
Fossil records indicate that nautiloids have experienced minimal morphological changes over the past 500 million years. Many were initially straight-shelled, as in the extinct genusLituites. They developed in the LateCambrian period and became a significant group of seapredators during theOrdovician period. Certain species reached over 2.5 m (8 ft) in size. The other cephalopod subclass,Coleoidea, diverged from the nautiloids long ago and the nautilus has remained relatively unchanged since. Nautiloids were much more extensive and varied 200 million years ago. The ancestors of allColeoidea (shell-less Cephalopods) once possessed shells, and many early cephalopodspecies are only known from shell remains. Following theK-Pg extinction event mostnautiloid species wentextinct, while members of Coleoidea managed to survive. Following the mass extinction, the nautilus became the only extant species of nautiloids.[43][44]
The family Nautilidae has its origin in theTrigonocerataceae (Centroceratina), specifically in theSyringonautilidae of theLate Triassic[5] and continues to this day withNautilus, the type genus, and its close relative,Allonautilus.
_-_Santiago_specimen.jpg)
The fossil record of Nautilidae begins withCenoceras in the Late Triassic, a highly varied genus that makes up theJurassicCenoceras complex.Cenoceras is evolute to involute, and globular to lentincular; with a suture that generally has a shallow ventral and lateral lobe and a siphuncle that is variable in position but never extremely ventral or dorsal.Cenoceras is not found above theMiddle Jurassic and is followed by theUpper Jurassic-MioceneEutrephoceras.
Eutrephoceras is generally subglobular, broadly rounded laterally and ventrally, with a small to occluded umbilicus, broadly rounded hyponomic sinus, only slightly sinuous sutures, and a small siphuncle that is variable in position.
Next to appear is theLower CretaceousStrionautilus fromIndia and the European ex-USSR, named by Shimankiy in 1951.Strionautilus is compressed, involute, with fine longitudinal striations. Whorl sections are subrectangular, sutures sinuous, the siphuncle subcentral.
Also from the Cretaceous isPseudocenoceras, named by Spath in 1927.Pseudocenoceras is compressed, smooth, with subrectangular whorl sections, flattened venter, and a deep umbilicus. The suture crosses the venter essentially straight and has a broad, shallow, lateral lobe. The siphuncle is small and subcentral.Pseudocenoceras is found in theCrimea and inLibya.
Carinonautilus is a genus from theUpper Cretaceous ofIndia, named by Spengler in 1919.Carinonautilus is a very involute form with high whorl section and flanks that converge on a narrow venter that bears a prominent rounded keel. The umbilicus is small and shallow, the suture only slightly sinuous. The siphuncle is unknown.
Obinautilus has also been placed in Nautilidae by some authorities, though it may instead be anargonautidoctopus.[45][46]
The family Nautilidae contains up to nineextant species and severalextinct species:[47]
Genetic data collected in 2011 pointed to there being only three extant species:A. scrobiculatus,N. macromphalus, andN. pompilius, withN. belauensis andN. stenomphalus both subsumed underN. pompilius, possibly assubspecies,[25] though this was prior to the description of three additional species (samoaensis,vanuatuensis andvitiensis).
The followingtaxa associated with the family Nautilidae are of uncertain taxonomic status:[49]
| Binomial name and author citation | Current systematic status | Type locality | Type repository |
|---|---|---|---|
| N. alumnusIredale, 1944 | Species dubium [fide Saunders (1987:49)] | Queensland,Australia | Not designated [fide Saunders (1987:49)] |
| N. ambiguus Sowerby, 1848 | Species dubium [fide Saunders (1987:48)] | Not designated | Unresolved |
| N. beccariiLinné, 1758 | Non-cephalopod;Foraminifera [fide Frizzell and Keen (1949:106)] | ||
| N. calcar Linné, 1758 | ?Non-cephalopod; Foraminifera Lenticulina | Adriatic Sea | Unresolved;Linnean Society of London? |
| N. crispus Linné, 1758 | Undetermined | Mediterranean Sea | Unresolved;Linnean Society of London? |
| N. crista Linné, 1758 | Non-cephalopod;Turbo [fide Dodge (1953:14)] | ||
| N. fascia Linné, 1758 | Undetermined | Adriatic Sea | Unresolved;Linnean Society of London? |
| N. granum Linné, 1758 | Undetermined | Mediterranean Sea | Unresolved;Linnean Society of London? |
| N. lacustrisLightfoot, 1786 | Non-cephalopod;Helix [fideDillwyn (1817:339)] | ||
| N. legumen Linné, 1758 | Undetermined | Adriatic Sea | Unresolved;Linnean Society of London? |
| N. micrombilicatusJoubin, 1888 | Nomen nudum | ||
| N. obliquus Linné, 1758 | Undetermined | Adriatic Sea | Unresolved;Linnean Society of London? |
| N. pompilius marginalis Willey, 1896 | Species dubium [fide Saunders (1987:50)] | New Guinea | Unresolved |
| N. pompilius moretoni Willey, 1896 | Species dubium [fide Saunders (1987:49)] | New Guinea | Unresolved |
| N. pompilius perforatus Willey, 1896 | Species dubium [fide Saunders (1987:49)] | New Guinea | Unresolved |
| N. radicula Linné, 1758 | ?Non-cephalopod; F. Nodosaria | Adriatic Sea | Unresolved;Linnean Society of London? |
| N. raphanistrum Linné, 1758 | Undetermined | Mediterranean Sea | Unresolved;Linnean Society of London? |
| N. raphanus Linné, 1758 | Undetermined | Adriatic Sea | Unresolved;Linnean Society of London? |
| N. semi-lituus Linné, 1758 | Undetermined | Liburni,Adriatic Sea | Unresolved;Linnean Society of London? |
| N. sipunculus Linné, 1758 | Undetermined | "freto Siculo" | Unresolved;Linnean Society of London? |
| N. texturatus Gould, 1857 | Nomen nudum | ||
| Octopodia nautilus Schneider, 1784 | Rejected specific name [fide Opinion 233, ICZN (1954:278)] |
Nautilus are collected or fished for sale as live animals or to carve the shells for souvenirs and collectibles, not for just the shape of their shells, but also the nacreous inner shell layer, which is used as apearl substitute.[50][51][52] InSamoa, nautilus shells decorate the forehead band of a traditional headdress calledtuiga.[53] Nautilus shells were popular items in theRenaissance andBaroquecabinet of curiosities and were often mounted bygoldsmiths on a thin stem to make extravagantnautilus shell cups.
The lowfecundity, late maturity, long gestation period and long life-span of nautiluses suggest that these species are vulnerable to overexploitation and demand for the ornamental shell is causing population declines.[54] The threats from trade in these shells has led to countries such as Indonesia legally protecting the chambered nautilus with fines of up to US$8,500 and/or 5 years in prison for trading in this species. Despite their legal protection, these shells were reported to be openly sold at tourist areas in Bali as of 2014.[50] The continued trade of these animals has led to a call for increased protection[55] and in 2016 all species in Family Nautilidae[56] were added toCITES Appendix II, regulating international trade.[57][58]
![Baroque nautilus cup of Aleksander Kęsowski, abbot of Oliwa, 1643–1667[59]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aBerl%25C3%25ADn_KGM_nautilus.JPG)
Palauans see nautili (Palauan:kedarm) as a symbol of vulnerable or fragile character from a belief that they easily die even from slight bumps on ocean rocks; hence someone who gets quickly angry after being pranked is compared to one (ng ko er a kedarm, el di metirem e metord).[60]
because all species are being proposed for listing, this proposal seeks to list the Family Nautilidae in Appendix II.
The chambered nautilus—victim of intense overharvesting for their beautiful shells—has been added to CITES Appendix II, which means all trade will now take place under a permit system, allowing the industry to be monitored for sustainability.
Authority control databases: National |
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