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Kānaka Maoli, Hawaiʻi Maoli | |
|---|---|
 Ka Hae Hawaiʻi (Official Flag of the Kingdom of Hawai'i & State of Hawai'i) | |
 Native Hawaiians performing aHula | |
| Total population | |
| 640,442 (2020 census)[1] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| United States | 640,442 |
| Canada | 3,300[2] |
| New Zealand | 699[3] |
| Australia | 300[citation needed] |
| Languages | |
| Religion | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Polynesians, otherPacific Islanders | |
Native Hawaiians (also known asIndigenous Hawaiians,Kānaka Maoli,Aboriginal Hawaiians, or simplyHawaiians;Hawaiian:kānaka,kānaka ʻōiwi,Kānaka Maoli, andHawaiʻi maoli) are theIndigenous people of theHawaiian Islands.
Hawaiʻi was settled at least 800 years ago by Polynesians who sailed from theSociety Islands. The settlers gradually became detached from their homeland and developed a distinct Hawaiian culture and identity in their new home. They created new religious and cultural structures, in response to their new circumstances and to pass knowledge from one generation to the next. Hence, theHawaiian religion focuses on ways to live and relate to the land and instills a sense of community.
TheHawaiian Kingdom was formed in 1795, whenKamehameha the Great, of the then-independentisland of Hawaiʻi, conquered the independent islands ofOʻahu,Maui,Molokaʻi, andLānaʻi to form the kingdom. In 1810,Kauaʻi andNiʻihau joined the Kingdom, the last inhabited islands to do so. The Kingdom received many immigrants from theUnited States andAsia. TheHawaiian sovereignty movement seeks autonomy or independence for Hawaiʻi.
In the2010 U.S. census, people with Native Hawaiian ancestry were reported to be residents in all 50 of the U.S. states, as well as Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico.[1] Within the U.S. in 2010, 540,013 residents reported Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander ancestry alone, of which 135,422 lived in Hawaii.[1] In the United States overall, 1.2 million people identified as Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, either alone or in combination with one or more other races.[1] The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander population was one of the fastest-growing groups between 2000 and 2010.[1]
The history ofKānaka Maoli, like the history of Hawaii, is commonly broken into four major periods:
One theory is that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaiʻi in the 3rd century from theMarquesas by travelling in groups ofwaka, and were followed byTahitians in AD 1300, who conquered the original inhabitants. Another is that a single, extended period of settlement populated the islands.[4] Evidence for Tahitian conquest include the legends ofHawaiʻiloa and the navigator-priestPaʻao, who is said to have made a voyage between Hawaiʻi and the island of "Kahiki" (Tahiti) and introduced many customs. Early historians, such asAbraham Fornander andMartha Beckwith, subscribed to this Tahitian invasion theory, but later historians, such asPatrick Kirch, do not mention it.King Kalākaua claimed thatPaʻao was fromSāmoa.
Some writers claim that earlier settlers in Hawaiʻi were forced into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about theMenehune, little people who builtheiau andfishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians, although similar stories exist throughout Polynesia.[5]
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At the time ofCaptain Cook's arrival in 1778, the population is estimated to have been between 250,000 and 800,000. This was the peak of the Native Hawaiian population. During the first century after contact,Kānaka Maoli were nearly wiped out bydiseases brought by immigrants and visitors.Kānaka Maoli had no resistance tosmallpox,measles, orwhooping cough, among others. These diseases were similarly catastrophic toindigenous populations in the Americas.
The current 293,000 include dual lineage Native Hawaiian and mixed lineage/multi-racial people. This was the highest number of anyKānaka Maoli living on the island until 2014, a period of almost 226 years. This long spread was marked by an initial die-off of 1-in-17, which would gradually increase to almost 8–10 dying from contact to the low point in 1950.
The1900 U.S. census identified 37,656 residents of full or partial Native Hawaiian ancestry. The2000 U.S. census identified 283,430 residents of Native Hawaiian orPacific Islander ancestry, showing a steady growth trend over the century.
Some Hawaiians left the islands during the period of theHawaiian Kingdom. For example,Harry Maitey became the first Hawaiian inPrussia.
Also noteworthy as leaving the Hawaiian kingdom was Palawai, Lānaʻi-born Native Hawaiian Kiha Kaʻawa who was adopted as a young man by Sandwich Islands Mormon Missionary President George Nebeker and emigrated withKing Lunalilo permission to the mainland US, thus making Kiha Kaʻawa (adopted Nebeker) the first native Hawaiian (Kanaka Maoli) to become a US citizen in 1873 prior to Hawaiʻi'sannexation. Kiha Ka’awa stayed in the US until his death December 26th 1931.
The Native Hawaiian population has increased outside the state ofHawaiʻi, with states such asCalifornia andWashington experiencing dramatic increases in total population. Due to a notable Hawaiian presence inLas Vegas, the city is sometimes called the "Ninth Island" in reference to the eight islands of Hawaiʻi.[6][7][8]
Several cultural preservation societies and organizations were established. The largest is theBernice PauahiBishop Museum, established in 1889 and designated as the Hawaiʻi State Museum of Natural and Cultural History. The museum houses the largest collection of native Hawaiian artifacts, documents, and other information. The museum has links with major colleges and universities throughout the world to facilitate research.
ThePolynesian Voyaging Society reignited interest in Polynesian sailing techniques, both in ship construction and in instrument-free navigation. The Society built multiple double-hulled canoes, beginning withHōkūleʻa and followed byMakaliʻi,Alingano Maisu, andMo‘okiha O Pi‘ilani.[9] The canoes and their worldwide voyages contributed to the renewal and appreciation of Hawaiian culture.[10]
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Native Hawaiian culture grew from their Polynesian roots, creating a localreligion and cultural practices. This new worship centered on the ideas of land (ʻāina) and family (ʻohana). Land became a sacred part of life and family.[11] Hawaiian religion ispolytheistic, but mostly focuses on the godsWākea andPapahānaumoku, the mother and father of the Hawaiian islands. Their stillborn child formed the deep roots of Hawaii, and whose second child,Hāloa, is the god from whom all Hawaiians originate.[11]
Hawaiian culture iscaste-oriented, with specific roles based on social standing. Caste roles are reflected in how land was controlled.
Each island was divided intomoku, which were given to people of high standing and kept within the family. Eachmoku was split into smallerahupuaʻa, each of which extended from the sea to the top of the nearest mountain. This was to ensure that eachahupuaʻa provided all necessary resources for survival, including hardwoods and food sources.[12] Eachahupuaʻa was managed by managers, who were charged by the island chief to collect tributes from the residents. Splits of theahupuaʻa were based on the level of tribute. The major subdivisions wereʻIli. EachʻIli gave a tribute to the chief of theahupuaʻa and another to theisland chief. In contrast to the European system offeudalism,[12] Hawaiian peasants were never bound to the land and were free to move as they chose.[13]
Kānaka Maoli refer to themselves askamaʻāina, a word meaning "people of the land", because of their connection to and stewardship of the land. It was also part of the spiritual belief system that attributes their origin to the land itself.[14] This is reinforced by the cultivation oftaro, a plant that is said to be the manifestation of Hāloa. The represents the deep roots that tether Hawaiians to the islands, as well as symbolizing the branching networks that Hawaiian people created.[14]
Hula is one of Hawaiʻi’s best-known indigenous artforms. Traditionally, hula was a ritualistic dance performed to honor the gods and goddesses.[15] Hula is typically categorized as eitherHula Kahiko orHula ʻAuana. Each hula tells a story via its movements and gestures.[citation needed]
Hula Kahiko is a traditional style. Its interpretive dance is known for its grace and romantic feel. Dances are accompanied bypercussion instruments andtraditional chanting. The traditional instruments include thepahu hula,kilu orpuniu,ipu,hano or ʻohe hano ihu,ka,pu,oeoe,pahupahukaʻekeʻeke,hokio, andwi. Dancers add to the effect using ʻuli,puʻili, ʻiliʻili,papahehi, andkalaʻau.[16]
Hula ʻAuana was influenced by later Western factors. It is accompanied by non-traditional musical instruments and colorful outfits. It became popularized with tourists and it is this form that is most widely practiced beyond the islands.ʻUkuleles andguitars are common.
The Hawaiian people celebrate traditions and holidays. The most popular form of celebration in Hawaiʻi is theLūʻau. A lūʻau is a traditional Hawaiian banquet, commonly featuring foods such aspoi,poke,lomi-lomi salmon,kālua pig,haupia, and entertainment such as ʻukulele music and hula.[17]
One of the most important holidays isPrince Kūhiō Day. Celebrated every year since 1949 on his birthday (March 26), the holiday honors PrinceJonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole, a Congressman who succeeded in helping Native Hawaiian families become landowners. It is celebrated with canoe races and lūʻaus across the islands.[18] Every June 11Kānaka Maoli celebrateKing Kamehameha day.Kamehameha I was the king who unified the islands and established the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. He was known as a fearless warrior, wise diplomat, and the most respected leader in the history of the Hawaiian monarchy. The holiday is celebrated with parades andlei draping ceremonies, whereKānaka Maoli bringlei (flower necklaces) toKing Kamehameha statues located across the islands and drape them from his cast bronze arms and neck to honor his contributions to the people of Hawaiʻi.[19]
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Native Hawaiian culture underwent arenaissance beginning in the 1970s. It was in part triggered by the1978 Hawaiʻi State Constitutional Convention, held 200 years after the arrival of Captain Cook. At the convention, state government committed itself to the study and preservation of Hawaiian culture, history, and language.
Hawaiian culture was introduced into Hawaiʻi's public schools, teaching Hawaiian art, lifestyle, geography, hula, and Hawaiian language. Intermediate and high schools were mandated to teach Hawaiian history to all their students.
Many aspects of Hawaiian culture were commercialized to appeal to visitors from around the world.[20] This includes hula, use of the word "Aloha",lei, and the assimilation of Hawaiian culture into non-native lifestyles. This has provided significant financial support for cultural practices, while emphasizing aspects that have popular appeal over those that respect tradition.
Statutes and charter amendments were passed acknowledging a policy of preference for Hawaiian place and street names. For example, with the closure ofBarbers Point Naval Air Station in the 1990s, the region formerly occupied by the base was renamedKalaeloa.
While Native Hawaiian protest has a long history, beginning just after theoverthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, many notable protests came during or after the Hawaiian cultural revival. These include theKalama Valley protests, theWaiāhole-Waikāne struggle, theKahoʻolawe island protests, and protests over the presence and management of astronomical observatories atop Hawaiʻi's mountains, most notably theThirty Meter Telescope protests.[21]
The Hawaiian language (orʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi) was once the language of native Hawaiian people; today,Kānaka Maoli predominantly speakEnglish. A major factor for this change was an 1896 law that required that English "be the only medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools". This law excluded the Hawaiian language from schools. In spite of this, someKānaka Maoli (as well as non-Kānaka Maoli) learnedʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi.[22] As with other Hawaiʻi locals,Kānaka Maoli typically speakHawaiian Creole English (referred to locally asPidgin) in daily life. Pidgin is acreole that developed during the plantation era in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, mixing words and diction from the various ethnic groups living in Hawaiʻi then.[23]
ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi later became an official language of the State of Hawaiʻi, alongsideEnglish. The state enacted a program of cultural preservation in 1978. Programs included Hawaiian language immersion schools, and a Hawaiian language department at theUniversity of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. Ever since, Hawaiian language fluency has climbed among all races.[24]
In 2006, theUniversity of Hawaiʻi at Hilo established a masters program in Hawaiian,[25] and in 2006, aPh.D. program. It was the first doctoral program established for the study of anypre-contact language in theUnited States.[26]
Hawaiian is the primary language of the residents ofNiʻihau.[27]
AlongsideʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi, someKānaka Maoli used the little-studied Hawaiʻi Sign Language.[28]
In Hawaiʻi, the public school system is operated by the Hawaiʻi StateDepartment of Education rather than local school districts. Under the administration of GovernorBenjamin J. Cayetano from 1994 to 2002, the state's educational system established Hawaiianlanguage immersion schools. In these schools, all courses are taught in the Hawaiian language and incorporate Hawaiian subject matter. These schools are not exclusive to native Hawaiians.[22]
Kānaka Maoli are eligible for an education fromKamehameha Schools (KS), established through the last will and testament ofBernice Pauahi Bishop of theKamehameha Dynasty. The largest and wealthiestprivate school system in the United States, KS was intended to benefit orphans and the needy, with preference given toKānaka Maoli. The schools educate thousands of children of native Hawaiian children ancestry and offers summer and off-campus programs not restricted by ancestry. KS practice of accepting primarilygifted students, has been controversial in the native Hawaiian community. Many families feel that gifted students could excel anywhere, and that the Hawaiian community would be better served by educating disadvantaged children to help them become responsible community contributors.[29]
ManyKānaka Maoli attend public schools or other private schools.
TheOffice of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA) is a self-governing corporate body of the State ofHawaii created by the1978 Hawaii State Constitutional Convention.[30][31] It is often described as the fourth branch of government in Hawaiʻi.[32][33]
OHA's mandate is to advance the education, health, housing and economics of (Kānaka Maoli) Native Hawaiians. OHA conducts research and advocacy to shape public policies. OHA works with communities to share information and build public support for Hawaiian issues.[34]
OHA was given control over certain public lands, and acquired other land-holdings for the provision of housing, supporting agriculture, and supporting cultural institutions.[35] The lands initially given to OHA were originally crown lands of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi, which had gone through various forms of public ownership since the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom.
OHA is a semi-autonomous government body administered by a nine-member board of trustees, elected by the people of the State of Hawaiʻi through popular suffrage.In 1893, during theHawaiian rebellions of 1887–1895 and after the ascension ofQueen Liliʻuokalani to the Hawaiian Throne in 1891,Sanford Dole created the "Committee of Safety"overthrew the monarchy. This was in part due to the Queen's rejection of the 1887 Constitution, which severely limited her authority.[36] This diminished traditional governance and installed a US-backed, plantation-led government.[37] One reason for the overthrow was overKalākaua's unwillingness to sign the amended Treaty of Reciprocity that would have damaged Hawaiian trade, and opened up part of Oʻahu for thePearl Harbor military base.[38]
The event was challenged byGrover Cleveland, but was eventually supported by PresidentWilliam McKinley in hisManifest Destiny plan, which harmed indigenous peoples in the continental United States and Hawaiʻi. The change leftKānaka Maoli as the only major indigenous group with no "nation-to-nation" negotiation status and without any degree of self determination.[39]
In 1974, the Native American Programs Act was amended to includeKānaka Maoli. This paved the way forKānaka Maoli to become eligible for some federal assistance programs originally intended forcontinental Native Americans. Today, Title 45 CFR Part 1336.62 defines a Native Hawaiian as "an individual any of whose ancestors were natives of the area which consists of the Hawaiian Islands prior to 1778".[40]
On November 23, 1993,U.S. PresidentBill Clinton signed United States Public Law 103–150, also known as theApology Resolution, which had previously passed Congress. This resolution "apologizes toKānaka Maoli on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi".[41]
In the early 2000s, the Congressional delegation of the State of Hawaiʻi introduced theNative Hawaiian Federal Recognition Bill (Akaka bill), an attempt torecognize and form a Native Hawaiian government entity to negotiate with state and federal governments. The bill would establish, for the first time, a formal political and legal relationship between a Native Hawaiian entity and the US government. Proponents consider the legislation to be an acknowledgement and partial correction of past injustices. They included Hawaiʻi's Congressional delegation, as well as former GovernorLinda Lingle. Opponents include theU.S. Commission on Civil Rights (who doubted the constitutionality of creating a race-based government), libertarian activists (who challenged the accuracy of claims of injustice), and other NativeHawaiian sovereignty activists (who claimed that the legislation would prevent complete independence from the United States).[citation needed]
A Ward Research poll commissioned in 2003 by the Office of Hawaiian Affairs reported that "Eighty-six percent of the 303 Hawaiian residents polled by Ward Research said 'yes.' Only 7 percent said 'no,' with 6 percent unsure ... Of the 301 non-Hawaiians polled, almost eight in 10 (78 percent) supported federal recognition, 16 percent opposed it, with 6 percent unsure."[42] AZogby International poll commissioned in 2009 by theGrassroot Institute of Hawaii indicated that a plurality (39%) of Hawaiʻi residents opposed it and that 76% indicated that they were unwilling to pay higher taxes to offset any resulting tax revenue loss due to the act.[43]
The bill did not pass.
In 2005, with the support of U.S. SenatorDaniel Inouye, federal funding through the Native Hawaiian Education Act created the Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law at UH MānoaWilliam S. Richardson School of Law. The program became known as Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law.
Ka Huli Ao focuses on research, scholarship, and community outreach. Ka Huli Ao maintains a social media presence and provides law students with summer fellowships. Law school graduates are eligible to apply for post-J.D. fellowships.
In 2016, theDepartment of Interior (DOI), under the direction of SecretarySally Jewell, started the process of recognizing the Hawaiians' right to self governance and the ability for nation-to-nation negotiation status and rights.[44] This created opposition from the Hawaiian Sovereignty movement who believed thatKānaka Maoli should not have to navigate US structures to regain sovereignty and viewed the process as incomplete.[45] The outcome ultimately allowed nation-to-nation relationships ifKānaka Maoli created their own government and sought that relationship.[46] The government formation process was stopped by JusticeAnthony Kennedy,[citation needed] using his earlier precedent inRice v. Cayetano that "ancestry was a proxy for race" in ancestry-based elections,but the voting itself was not stopped.
The United States government has permanently designated the month of May to beAsian American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander Heritage Month;[47] before 2021 it was known asAsian Pacific American Heritage Month.[48]
On October 18, 2022, theDepartment of Interior published a press release announcing the establishment of a new policy that would require the federal government to formally consult the Native Hawaiian Community in order to "further affirm and honor the special political and trust relationship between the United States and the Native Hawaiian Community." SecretaryDeb Haaland noted in the press release that the new consultation policy would assist in upholding the sovereignty and right toself-determination Native Hawai'ian communities have.[49]
In addition to bi-annual meetings between the Secretary and representatives of Native Hawaiian organizations on "matters of mutual interest", as well as mandatory training,[50] the Consultation policy requires federal agencies to consult the Native Hawai'ian Community before engaging in any actions that "have the potential to significantly affect Native Hawaiian resources, rights, or lands by correspondingly charging the Office with fully integrating the policy and practice of meaningful consultation by such Federal agencies." Its proposal explained the unique relationship Native Hawaiian have with the US government, defined as "government-to-sovereign" and recognized in 150 statutes: the unrelinquished sovereignty Native Hawaiiana have legally in the absence of a "government-to-government" relationship.[51]
In December 2022, theViolence Against Women Act was amended to includeKānaka Maoli survivors of gender-based violence and Native Hawaiian organizations in grant funding.[52]
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In 1873, the firstKānaka Maoli were given permission fromKing Lunalilo (prior emigration ofKānaka Maoli outside of Hawaiʻi was not allowed) to permanently emigrate to the United States (Salt Lake City, Utah). They were Kiha Kaʻawa, and Kahana Pukahi, however Kahana Pukahi left the US in the later 1870's and went back to Hawaii, this remaining a subject of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Kiha ka'awa however remained in the US and was adopted by Mormon Sandwich Islands (Hawaiian islands) Missionary President George Nebeker upon arriving to the US, thus making Kiha Kaʻawa (adopted surname Nebeker) the very first native Hawaiian to become a U.S. citizen in 1873 prior to Hawaiʻi's annexation. Kiha Ka’awa was born November 15, 1862 in a village at Palawai,LānaʻiʻMaui County, Hawaiʻi, then moved toLāʻie located at the Northeastern side of Oʻahu as a young boy to help develop the Mormon presence with George Nebeker and family at the present day site where the Mormon church is and the Polynesian Cultural Center is located. From Lāʻie, Kiha Ka’awa emigrated via ship with Kahana Pukahi, the Nebekers and William King to Salt Lake City Utah. Kiha remained in Utah, married twice, and had several children largely in Salt Lake City Utah area until he died on December 26, 1931. Kiha was visited in the US by Hawaiian King Kalākaua, in Ogden Utah where the King and Kiha spoke for several hours in their native language before the King's schedule had him back on his US trip, and on a train.
The Hawaii Supreme Court has described OHA as a 'self-governing corporate body'…
Formerly known as Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month, the name officially changed to Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander Heritage Month in April 2021, with President Joe Biden's signing of Proclamation 10189.
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