He allowed the establishment of newspapers in the country and made use of modern forms of technology such as telegraph, photography and also planned concessions for railways and irrigation works. Despite his modernising reforms on education, his tax reforms were abused by people in power, and the government was viewed as corrupt and unable to protect commoners from abuse by the upper classes which led to increasing anti-governmental sentiments. He was assassinated atShah Abdol-Azim Shrine inRey nearTehran. He was the first modern Iranian monarch who formally visited Europe and wrote of his travels in his memoirs.He was the son ofMohammad Shah Qajar andMalek Jahan Khanom and the third longest reigning monarch in Iranian history afterShapur II of theSasanian dynasty andTahmasp I of theSafavid dynasty. Naser al-Din Shah had sovereign power for close to 48 years.
The state under Naser was the recognized government of Iran, but its authority was undermined by local tribal leaders due to the lack of a standing army. The army was weakened by wars with Russia in theTreaty of Gulistan (1813) andTurkmenchay (1828)[6] The religious and tribal chieftains held quite a bit of autonomy over their communities. Naser was not effective in implementing his sovereignty over his people. Local groups had their own militias and oftentimes did not obey laws passed by the monarchy, since it did not have the power to enforce them. The people followed the ulama's fatwas instead of state-issued laws. When Naser took power, his army barely had 3,000 men which was significantly smaller than the armies under various tribal leaders. When the state needed a proper army, he would hire the local militias.[7] Prior to his reforms, Naser's government had very little power over their subjects and even during the reforms, they faced more scrutiny over their ability to implement those reforms successfully.
Naser had earlyreformist tendencies, but was dictatorial in his style of government. With his sanction, thousands ofBábis were killed, this was in reaction to an assassination attempt from a small group of Bábis.[9] This treatment continued under his prime minister Amir Kabir, who even ordered the execution of theBáb – regarded as a manifestation of God to Bábí's andBaháʼís, and to historians as the founder of theBábí religion.
In 1856, Naseraddin Shah launched theSecond Herat War to reassert Qajar suzerainty overHerat, a strategically vital city state in western Afghanistan that Iran had long claimed as part of its historic sphere.[10] Persian forces under Naser's uncle,Hesam o-Saltana captured Herat in October 1856 after a nine-month siege, deposing the local ruler and installing a pro-Iranian governor.[11] This success alarmed Britain, which considered Herat the “gate of India” and feared Persian (and potentially Russian) expansion toward its Indian empire. Britain declared war on Iran in November 1856 (the Anglo-Persian War), but the Persian occupation of Herat itself represented a clear military and political victory for Naseraddin Shah, temporarily restoring Iranian control over a region lost since the mid-1700s.
On 2 November 1856, at four in the afternoon, the Shah was sitting in theMirror Hall of the outer court of theGolestan Palace, next to the Crystal Fountain. His servant in waiting, Yadullah Khan, brought news of the successful conquest in Herat, for which he was gifted with a thousandtomans.[13] In the margin of a Persian translation ofLouis de Bourrienne'sMemoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, the Shah wrote:
Thanks to Murtaza 'Ali's blessings, peace be upon him, this was a praiseworthy victory and the eyes of the enemy, particularly the British, turned blind [with jealousy]. Hundred and ten gun salutes were fired in honor of his holiness 'Ali.
— Naser al-Din ShahThe Qajar court announced apublic levee in honor of the occasion, during which the court chronicler recited the official records of the conquest as ascribed to Hesam o-Saltaneh.[14] The document lists the administrative decisions taken in the aftermath of Herat's capture. In a symbolic move, the Shah's name was mentioned in theFriday sermon and theShiaadhan became the call to prayer. Similarly, the mint struck coins in Naseraddin Shah's name.[15] A public holiday was soon declared and a national booklet outlining the conquest was disseminated.
Naser al-Din was the first modern Iranian monarch to visit Europe in 1873 and then again in 1878 (when he saw aRoyal Navy Fleet Review), and finally in 1889 and was reportedly amazed with the technology he saw. During his visit to the United Kingdom in 1873, Naseraddin Shah was appointed byQueen Victoria a Knight of theOrder of the Garter, the highest English order of chivalry. He was the first Iranian monarch to be honoured as such. His travel diary of his 1873 trip has been published in several languages, including Persian, German, French, and Dutch.
In 1890 Naser met British major Gerald F. Talbot and signed acontract with him giving him the ownership of the Iraniantobacco industry, but he later was forced to cancel the contract afterAyatollahMirza Hassan Shirazi issued afatwa that made farming, trading, and consuming tobaccoharam (forbidden). Consuming tobacco from the newly monopolized 'Talbet' company represented foreign exploitation, so for that reason it was deemed immoral. It even affected the Shah's personal life as his wives did not allow him to smoke.
This was not the end of Naser's attempts to give concessions to Europeans; he later gave the ownership of Iranian customs incomes toPaul Julius Reuter.[16]
He defeated various rebels in the Iranian provinces, most notably inKhorasan, balanced the budget by introducing reforms to the tax system, curbed the power of theclergy in the judiciary, built several military factories, improved relations with other powers to curb British and Russian influence, opened the first newspaper calledVaghaye-Ettefaghieh, embellished and modernized cities (for example by building theTehran Bazaar) and most importantly opened the first Iranian school for upper education called theDar ul-Funun where many Iranian intellectuals received their education.
The Shah gradually lost interest in reform. However, he took some important measures such as introducingtelegraphy andpostal services and building roads.
In 1860, the shah established the Ministry of Science and appointedAliqoli Mirza Qajar as its first Minister of Science.
He also increased the size of the state's military and created a new group called thePersian Cossack Brigade[17] which was trained and armed by the Russians. He was the first Iranian to be photographed and was a patron ofphotography who had himself photographed hundreds of times. His final prime minister wasAli Asghar Khan, who after the shah's assassination aided in securing the transfer of the throne toMozaffar al-Din. Although he was successful in introducing those western-based reforms, he was not successful in gaining complete sovereignty over his people or getting them to accept these reforms. The school he opened, Dar al-Funun, had very small enrollment numbers. The restrictions defined by Shia Islam on the shah's collection of thezakat led to those funds going straight into the coffers of the ulama. Therefore, the financial autonomy given to the ulama enabled them to remain structurally independent, keeping madrasahs open and supporting the students therein.[18] The ulama also maintained their authority to challenge state law. To fund these new institutions and building projects, Naser al-Din repeatedly usedtax farming to increase state revenue. Tax collectors routinely abused their power and the government was viewed as corrupt and unable to protect them from abuse by the upper class. This anti-government sentiment increased the ulama's power over the people because they were able to provide them security. Keddie states in her book,Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran, that at the time "it was still considered a sign of greater status to be admitted to the ranks of the ulama than it was to become a member of the civil service."[19]
In 1852 Naser al-Din dismissed and executedAmir Kabir, the famous Iranian reformer. With him, many believe, died the prospect of an independent Iran led by meritocracy rather than nepotism.
In the later years of his rule, however, Naser al-Din steadfastly refused to deal with the growing pressures for reforms. He also granted a series of concessionary rights to foreigners in return for large payments. In 1872, popular pressure forced him to withdraw one concession involving permission to construct such complexes asrailways andirrigation works throughout Iran. He visited Europe in 1873, 1878 and 1889. In 1890, he granted a 50-year concession on the purchase, sale, and processing of all tobacco in the country, which led to a nationalboycott of tobacco and the withdrawal of the concession. This last incident is considered by many authorities to be the origin of modernIranian nationalism.
Naser al-Din Shah was assassinated byMirza Reza Kermani, a follower ofJamal al-Din al-Afghani, when he was visiting and praying in theShah Abdol-Azim Shrine on 1 May 1896. It is said that the revolver used to assassinate him was old and rusty, and had he worn a thicker overcoat, or been shot from a longer range, he would have survived the attempt on his life.[20] Shortly before his death, he is reported to have said "I will rule you differently if I survive!" The assassin was prosecuted by the defence minister, Nazm ol-Dowleh.
Kermani’s act, though singular in its occurrence, quickly came to symbolize the deep-seated dissatisfaction with the established autocracy. Motivated by a fervent belief in reform and influenced by contemporary revolutionary ideas, his deed was interpreted by many as a deliberate challenge to the legitimacy of the Qajar regime. Scholars such as Ervand Abrahamian have argued that this assassination not only stripped the Shah of his personal authority but also exposed systemic weaknesses within the state apparatus that would later fuel demands for constitutional governance.[21][22] In a similar vein, historians likeNegar Keddie contend that the symbolic nature of the act underscored the tension between traditional monarchical power and emerging modern political thought, thereby prefiguring the ideological currents that ultimately culminated in theIranian Constitutional Revolution.[23]
Nasser-al-Din Shah's assassination and the subsequent execution of Kermani marked a turning point in Iranian political thought that would ultimately lead to theIranian Constitutional Revolution during his successorMozaffar ad-Din Shah's turbulent reign.[24]
Naser al-Din was buried in theShah Abdol-Azim Shrine, inRay nearTehran, where he was assassinated. His funeral took place six months after his death. A British diplomat who spoke with some who had been present,Charles Hardinge, commented "... the corpse was conveyed on a very high funeral car and was 'high' in more ways than one".[25] His one-piece marble tombstone, bearing his full effigy, is now kept in theGolestan Palace Museum in Tehran.
Naser al-Din Shah was very interested in painting andphotography. He was a talented painter and, even though he had not been trained, was an expert inpen and ink drawing. Several of his pen and ink drawings survive. He was one of the first photographers in Iran and was a patron of the art. He established a photography studio inGolestan Palace.[27]
Naser al-Din was also apoet. 200 couplets of his were recorded in the preface ofMajma'ul Fusahā, a work byReza-Qoli Khan Hedayat about poets of the Qajar era. He was interested in history and geography and had many books on these topics in his library. He also knewFrench andEnglish, but was not fluent in either language.[28]
Hekāyāt Pir o Javān (حکایت پیر و جوان; "The Tale of the Old and the Young") was attributed to him by many; it was one of the first Persian stories written in modern European style.[29]
Lacquer box depicting a young Qajar prince, perhaps Naser al-Din Shah before his accession to the throne. Created mid-19th century,Isfahan, possibly by Mohammad Esmail Esfahani
Jwamer Agha's descendants are related to Nasr al-Din Shah Qajar through the marriage of Jwamer's eldest son to 2 Qajar princesses from Naser al-Din Shah Qajar.[42][43][44] Thus they bear the title of Princess of Qajar.
He was the inspiration for the main character of the novelDe koning, published in 2011, and the novelSalam Europa!, published in 2016, by thePersian–Dutch writerKader Abdolah.
It can be inferred from the time period and historical references that Naser al-Din Shah is depicted in the 1990 novelPhantom by Susan Kay which explores the life of the titular character in Gaston Leroux'sThe Phantom of the Opera.
In animation form his life depicted by Beate Petersen inNasseredin Shah and his 84 wives at 2011.
Joseph Roth: The tale of the 1002nd night: a novel (1939).
Musicians and dancers at the Court of Naser-al-Din Shah.
^abcAmanat, Abbas (1997),Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896, Comparative studies on Muslim societies, I.B. Tauris, p. 10,ISBN9781860640971
^Keddie, Nikki R. (2012).Religion and Rebellion in Iran: The Iranian Tobacco Protest of 1891-1982. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.ISBN978-0-7146-1971-2.
^Anderson, Betty Signe (2016).A History of the Modern Middle East (Electronic ed.). Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 102–103.ISBN9780804798754.
^William Cleveland,A History of the Modern Middle East, 5th ed., (Westview, 2012) p. 100
^Rabiee, Manizheh (2005).Life of Naser al-Din Shah. Tehran: Muʼassasah-ʼi Farhangī-i Ahl-i Qalam. p. 34.ISBN9789648084191.OCLC84660641.
^Abrahamian, Ervand (2008).A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-79246-6.{{cite book}}:Check|isbn= value: checksum (help)
^Abrahamian, Ervand (1982).Iran Between Two Revolutions. Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-08665-0.{{cite book}}:Check|isbn= value: checksum (help)
^Keddie, Negar (1992). "Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution".Middle Eastern Studies.28 (3):341–356.doi:10.1080/00263209208700871 (inactive 1 July 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link)
^Mansuri, Kurosh (2006).Hekāyāte Pir Va Javān. Tehran: Motale'at Tarikh.ISBN964-6357-69-5
^Amanat, Abbas (1997).Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831-1896. University of California Press. p. 324.ISBN978-0-520-08321-9.
^Scheiwiller, Staci Gem (1 December 2016).Liminalities of Gender and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century Iranian Photography: Desirous Bodies. Taylor & Francis. p. 43.ISBN978-1-315-51212-9.
^Scheiwiller, Staci Gem (1 December 2016).Liminalities of Gender and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century Iranian Photography: Desirous Bodies. Taylor & Francis. p. 65.ISBN978-1-315-51212-9.
^abcLambert-Hurley, Siobhan; Majchrowicz, Daniel; Sharma, Sunil (2 August 2022).Three Centuries of Travel Writing by Muslim Women. Indiana University Press. pp. 87, 91.ISBN978-0-253-06205-5.
^abcdScheiwiller, Staci Gem (30 May 2025).Women's Agency and Ontology in Nineteenth-Century Iranian Photography: A Mirror for Princesses. Taylor & Francis. p. 116.ISBN978-1-04-035154-3.
^Zi'a es-Saltaneh married Seyed Zeyn-ol-Abedin Emam Jome'eh. Her daughter, Zia Ashraf Emami marriedMohammad Mosaddegh
^Farrokhzad, Pouran.Kārnamā-ye Zanān-e Kārā-ye Irān (Az Dīroz tā Emrūz) ("Chronicle of Distinguished Iranian Women from Yesterday to Today"). Tehran, 2002
^Gritzner, Maximilian (2000).Handbuch der Ritter- und Verdienstorden aller Kulturstaaten der Welt (in German). Leipzig: Holzminden Reprint-Verlag. pp. 327–334.ISBN9783826207051.
Charouz, Ladislav (2022). "Naser al-Din Shah's 1873 Visit to the World's Fair in Vienna".Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies.60 (1):135–147.doi:10.1080/05786967.2020.1762503.
Grobien, Philip Henning (2023). "Modernity, Borders and Maps: Iran's Ability to Advocate for its Borders During the Reign of Naser al-Din Shah".Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies.61 (2):285–298.doi:10.1080/05786967.2021.1895672.S2CID233775219.
Window on an Era: A Qajar Royal Album. Selected photographs from a private album of Nasser al-Din Shah, with an introduction byKaveh Golestan,Kargah
Mohammad-Reza Tahmasbpoor,History of Iranian Photography: Early Photography in Iran, Iranian Artists' site,Kargah
History of Iranian Photography. Postcards in Qajar Period, photographs provided by Bahman Jalali, Iranian Artists' site,Kargah.
History of Iranian Photography. Women as Photography Model: Qajar Period, photographs provided by Bahman Jalali, Iranian Artists' site,Kargah.
Sir James William Redhouse,The Diary of H.M. the Shah of Persia during His Tour through Europe in A.D. 1873, A Verbatim Translation (John Murray, London, 1874),Internet Archive (Digitized by Robarts atUniversity of Toronto).
Sir Albert Houtum Schidler and Baron Louis de Norman,A Diary Kept by His Majesty the Shah of Persia during His Journey to Europe in 1878, in English (Richard Bentley & Son, London, 1879),Internet Archive (Digitized by Google).
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_sitting_on_a_horse_with_his_entourage_of_officers%2c_bodyguards%2c_footmen_and_executioners_around_him._Gouache_painting_by_an_Persian_artist.jpg)
