1.7 mK, temperature record forhelium-3 (3He) /helium-4 (4He)dilution refrigeration, and the lowest temperature which may be sustained for arbitrarily long time with known techniques.
^Such a temperature, while negative as a scalar value, correspond to thermodynamic states hotter than every positive temperature[1] – even infinite temperature[2]
^Most ordinary human activity takes place at temperatures of this order of magnitude. Circumstances where water naturally occurs in liquid form are shown inlight grey.
^"Negative Absolute Temperatures Does that mean that temperature is circular?".Quantum Optics Group. Ludwig-Maximilians Universität Munich. Retrieved20 February 2025.How do you measure temperature?...we take images of our atoms with a CCD camera...We compare the distribution of our atoms with the theoretically expected distributions. The distribution that fits best gives us the temperature of the atoms.
^Anderson, M. H.; Ensher, J. R.; Matthews, M. R.; Wieman, C. E.; Cornell, E. A. (14 July 1995). "Observation of Bose-Einstein Condensation in a Dilute Atomic Vapor".SCIENCE.269 (5221).Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics (JILA):198–201.Bibcode:1995Sci...269..198A.doi:10.1126/science.269.5221.198.PMID17789847 – via www.cibtech.org/J-PHYSICS-MATHEMATICAL-SCIENCES/PUBLICATIONS/2015/Vol-5-NO-3/01-JPMS-001-(SEP)-THOMAS-CRITICAL.pdf (INTRODUCTION) & iask.ai/?mode=question&q=what+was+the+first+Bose-Einstein+Condensation+made%2Fcreated (ai verified: bingweb.binghamton.edu/~suzuki/ModernPhysics/31_BEC_in_alkali_atoms.pdf).
^abEnss, Christian; Hunklinger, Siegfried (2005)."Superfluid3HE".Low-temperature physics.BerlinHeidelberg: Springer-Verlag.doi:10.1007/3-540-26619-4_4.ISBN3-540-23164-1. Retrieved1 April 2025.superfluid3He was finally discovered in 1971. Osheroff, Richardson and Lee observed clear indications for two phase transitions in3He at temperatures around 2mK" (sic) "in experiments using aPomeranchuk cell
^abSoda, Toshio; Yamazaki, Koji (February 1974). "On the Superfluid Phases of Liquid3He".Progress of Theoretical Physics.51 (2): Abstract.Bibcode:1974PThPh..51..327S.doi:10.1143/PTP.51.327 – via iask.ai/?mode=question&options[detail_level]=detailed&q=Osheroff+DD%2C+Gully+WJ%2C+Richardson+RC%2C+Lee+DM+1972.+Phys.+Rev.+Lett.+29%3A920 using W.P. Halperin Superfluid3He in Aerogel Annual Review of Condensed Matter Physics Volume 10, 2019 search: iask.ai: "2. Osheroff DD, Gully WJ, Richardson RC, Lee DM 1972. Phys. Rev. Lett. 29:920".
^Osheroff, D. D.; Richardson, R. C.; Lee, D. M. (3 April 1972). "Evidence for a New Phase of Solid He3".Phys. Rev. Lett.28 (885).Cornell University:885–888.doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.28.885 – via Enss & Hunklinger.indicate the existence of a new phase in solid He3 below 2.7 mK of a fundamentally different nature
^Ouellet, Jonathan (14 October 2014). "The Coldest Cubic Meter in the Known Universe".arXiv:1410.1560 [physics.ins-det].
^Allen and Misener; Kapitza (1938).Regal, C.A.; Jin, D.S. (2007). "Introduction".Experimental Realization of the BCS-BEC Crossover with a Fermi Gas of Atoms. Advances In Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics. Vol. 54.JILA:ELSEVIER. pp. 1–79.doi:10.1016/S1049-250X(06)54001-7.ISBN978-0-12-003854-1.
^abSahai, Raghvendra; Nyman, Lars-Åke (1997)."The Boomerang Nebula: The Coolest Region of the Universe?".The Astrophysical Journal.487 (2):L155 –L159.Bibcode:1997ApJ...487L.155S.doi:10.1086/310897.hdl:2014/22450.L156: We have measured a 9 mK upper limit (3 σ) on continuum emission at 89.2 and 145.6 GHz toward the Boomerang Nebula, which is much smaller than the negative temperatures seen in the CO and13COJ 1–0 spectra, so these must result from absorption of the microwave background, requiring the excitation temperature (Tex) to be less than 2.8 K (Tbb).3. A TWO–SHELL MODEL In shell 2 (R1,o <r <R2),Tkin < 2.8 K
^"HydrogenFluidProperties".cardinal.cels.anl.gov.Argonne National Laboratory – via link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-94-007-7199-4 (Editor:Kostas Gavroglu) -James Dewar and His Route to the Liquefaction of Hydrogen J. S. Rowlinson Pages 53-64.Reference 1. Marc J Assael, J-AM Assael, Marcia L Huber, Richard A Perkins, and Yasayuki Takata. Correlation of the thermal conductivity of normal and parahydrogen from the triple point to 1000 k and up to 100 mpa. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 40(3):033101, 2011.
^Savvatimskii, Aleksandr I (2003). "Melting point of graphite and liquid carbon (Concerning the paper 'Experimental investigation of the thermal properties of carbon at high temperatures and moderate pressures' by E. I. Asinovskii, A. V. Kirillin, and A. V. Kostanovskii)".Physics-Uspekhi.46 (12):1295–1303.Bibcode:2003PhyU...46.1295S.doi:10.1070/PU2003v046n12ABEH001699.S2CID250746507.
^Yang, C. C.; Li, S. (2008). "Size-Dependent Temperature-Pressure Phase Diagram of Carbon".Journal of Physical Chemistry C.112 (5):1423–1426.doi:10.1021/jp076049+.
^David R. Williams (9 May 2024)."Solar Atmosphere".nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. NSSDCA, Mail Code 690.1 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Greenbelt, MD 20771. Archived fromthe original on 6 Aug 2024. Retrieved1 April 2025.
^Abdelsalam, Tarek I.; Tian, Zhao; Robinson, Adam (1 May 2023). "Directly irradiated liquid metal film in an ultra-high temperature solar cavity receiver. Part 1: Concepts and a quasi-steady-state analysis".Solar Energy.255:355–368.Bibcode:2023SoEn..255..355A.doi:10.1016/j.solener.2023.03.047.
^Massey, Philip; Bresolin, Fabio; Kudritzki, Rolf P.; Puls, Joachim; Pauldrach, A. W. A. (2004). "The Physical Properties and Effective Temperature Scale of O-Type Stars as a Function of Metallicity. I. A Sample of 20 Stars in the Magellanic Clouds".The Astrophysical Journal.608 (2):1001–1027.arXiv:astro-ph/0402633.Bibcode:2004ApJ...608.1001M.doi:10.1086/420766.S2CID119373878.
^abcdehttp://wmo.asu.edu/ ASU World Meteorological Organization – Global Weather & Climate Extremes
^"Temperature Everest Summit". Himalayan Wonders. 30 July 2014. Retrieved2023-10-11. (Temperature calculated by averaging monthly temperatures given in graph)
