Nangarhar (also spelledNangrahar,Ningrahar, andNingarhar,Pashto:د ننګرهار ولایت,romanized: Da Nangarhār Wilāyat andDari:ولایت ننگرهار,romanized: Wilāyat-e Nangarhār) is one of the major eastern provinces ofAfghanistan and serves as a key political, economic, and cultural gateway between Afghanistan andPakistan. It borders Pakistan'sKhyber Pakhtunkhwa province to the east and south, while internally it is adjacent to the Afghan provinces ofKunar,Laghman,Kabul, andLogar. The provincial capital isJalalabad, a lowland city located along theKabul River that functions as the principal administrative, commercial, and educational center of the region.
Covering an area of approximately 7,700 square kilometers and hosting an estimated population of around 1.8 million people (as of 2023), Nangarhar is defined by its fertile river valleys, semi-arid plains, and the lower reaches of theSpin Ghar mountain range, which forms the natural frontier with Pakistan.[3] The province's landscape is shaped by theKabul,Kunar, andSurkh Rod rivers, which support extensive agricultural production and sustain some of Afghanistan's most densely populated rural districts.[4]
Historically part of the greater eastern Afghan cultural sphere, Nangarhar has long been an important crossroads linkingCentral Asia,South Asia, and theIranian Plateau. The region has served as a strategic corridor since antiquity, positioned along ancient routes connectingKabul withPeshawar. Jalalabad and its surroundings have hosted various dynasties, including theTimurids,Mughals, and the early Afghan state under theDurrani Empire. The province is also home to the ancient Buddhist complex ofHadda, one of Afghanistan's most significant archaeological sites, which flourished as a center ofGreco-Buddhist art and learning.[5]
In the modern era, Nangarhar remains a region of both strategic importance and complex social dynamics. Its proximity to theborder, diversetribal landscape, and major transit routes have shaped its political, economic, and security environment.[6] While the provincial center has experienced significant urban growth, rural districts face challenges related to infrastructure, governance, and economic development. Despite these disparities, Nangarhar retains a strong regional identity rooted in its historical heritage, agricultural traditions, and central role in cross-border exchange.
The nameNangarhar is derived from ancient regional and linguistic traditions and reflects the province's deep historical roots. The most widely accepted interpretation traces the name to the ancient termNagarahara (Sanskrit:नगर,romanized: nagara), which also appears in earlyBrahmi sources related to the broader region ofGandhara. In this context,Nagara is often associated with the idea of a settlement, city, or populated place, whilehar orghar is interpreted as a geographic or territorial suffix, together suggesting a meaning close to 'land of settlements' or 'inhabited region'.[7] Some scholars have additionally proposed that the name could originate from the termnava-vihara (Sanskrit:नव-विहार,romanized: nava-vihāra), meaning "nineviharas", reflecting the historical presence of Buddhist monastic centers in the region.[8]
Nangarhar has been inhabited for thousands of years and was an integral part of the ancientGandhara civilization. Archaeological sites such asHadda,Bara, andBegram reveal early urban settlements with Buddhist monasteries, stupas, and extensive sculpture workshops dating back to at least the 1st millennium BCE.[5][9] The region's fertile river valleys and strategic position along trade routes connecting theKabul Valley with thePeshawar Valley andIndus facilitated commerce, cultural exchange, and the spread ofBuddhism.[10][9]
Relief sculpture from the archaeological site ofHadda around the2nd century CE
The province was historically influenced by several empires and cultures. During the Achaemenid period, it formed part of the eastern satrapies, providing revenue and troops to the empire. Following the conquest byAlexander the Great, Greek cultural influence spread, as evidenced by Hellenistic coins and inscriptions. After Alexander, the region fell underSeleucid and laterMauryan control, promoting Buddhist institutions and integration into the broader South Asian cultural sphere.[11] Inscriptions inGreek,Aramaic,Sanskrit, andBrahmi highlight the multicultural and multilingual character of early Nangarhar. Archaeologists have found terracotta figurines, coins, and pottery showing trade links withCentral Asia and India.
During the early medieval era, Nangarhar came under successive Islamic dynasties, including theGhaznavids andGhurids.[12][13] The region's cities, especiallyJalalabad, served as commercial and administrative hubs connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.[14] Islamic architecture, including mosques, caravanserais, and fortifications, expanded during this period, some of which remain today. Local Pashtun tribes preserved their autonomy in rural areas, while regional empires sought control over strategic trade routes.
The Mongol invasions of the 13th century underGenghis Khan caused widespread devastation, destroying settlements and displacing populations. Under theTimurid Empire, Nangarhar's cities were rebuilt, fortifications strengthened, and trade networks reestablished.[14][15] Timurids appointed governors from trusted family members to maintain local authority. The province remained a key junction for trade, culture, and military campaigns, linking Kabul, Peshawar, and the wider Indian subcontinent.
From the 16th century onward, Nangarhar was at the center of repeated conflicts between regional powers. The province was contested between theMughal Empire and theSafavid dynasty of Persia, reflecting both strategic and religious rivalries betweenSunni andShia rulers.[16][17] During this period, fortifications were rebuilt multiple times to withstand sieges, and the province functioned as a provincial administrative and military center.
In 1709, local leaders successfully rebelled against the Safavids, establishing semi-independent rule and consolidating authority over eastern Afghan territories. Nangarhar later became part of theDurrani Empire underAhmad Shah Durrani, who established the empire in 1747. The province's fertile valleys and strategic location along trade and military routes made it a critical part of the eastern administration of the empire. Its strategic location also made it a site of contest during theFirst Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842) and theSecond Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880), when British forces briefly occupied parts of eastern Afghanistan, including key routes through Nangarhar, to secure their interests in India and counter Russian influence.[18]
Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, Nangarhar continued to serve as a commercial and cultural hub, benefiting from fertile valleys, river access, and long-established trade networks. Infrastructure, agriculture, and local governance expanded under various Afghan administrations, though periodic tribal conflicts and regional instability constrained growth and development.[18]
TheSoviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 triggered decades of conflict in Nangarhar. The province became a stronghold formujahideen, with its mountains and valleys like inTora Bora providing natural defense and access to supply routes fromPakistan.[19] Multiple local commanders, including influential tribal leaders, organized resistance against Soviet and later Afghan communist forces. After the Soviet withdrawal in 1989, Nangarhar was controlled by competing warlords and local militias.[20] The province was strategically important for bothTaliban andal-Qaeda networks during the 1990s due to its border with Pakistan and the Khyber Pass.[21] Various insurgent bases and training camps were established in the region, making it a focal point of military and intelligence operations.
Following theUnited States invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, Nangarhar was among the first provinces to experience coalition military operations. U.S. and allied forces targeted insurgent networks while working to rebuild infrastructure and establish local governance. Nevertheless, insurgent activity persisted, and the province remained contested throughout the 2000s and 2010s.[22][23][24]
In August 2021, as part of theU.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan, the Taliban advanced rapidly across eastern Afghanistan and captured Jalalabad along with surrounding districts.[25] With the fall of Nangarhar, the Taliban gained control over key transport routes linking Afghanistan to Pakistan, including roads towards theKhyber Pass.[26] Since returning to power, the Taliban have issued multiple edicts imposing severe restrictions on women and girls, including bans on secondary education beyond a certain grade, limitations on employment, travel, and public life, and strict dress and guardianship rules.[27] Consequently, Nangarhar remains under Taliban control while continuing to occupy a strategic and economic position, owing to its fertile valleys, historic trade routes, and geographic proximity to the border with Pakistan and the Khyber Pass, thus preserving its long‑standing role as a cultural and geographic crossroads of eastern Afghanistan.[28][29][30]
Nangarhar is located in eastern Afghanistan and shares borders withKunar andLaghman to the north, theKhyber Pakhtunkhwa region ofPakistan to the east and south, andPaktia to the west. The province covers a mixture of fertile river valleys, arid plains, and mountainous terrain. The most prominent valley is the one nearJalalabad, through which theKabul River flows, supporting the majority of agricultural production and human settlement. Smaller valleys branch from the main river basin, providing additional arable land and linking the mountainous areas to the plains.[4]
The mountains in the province are primarily extensions of theHindu Kush andSpin Ghar ranges, forming natural barriers along the border with Pakistan.[3] These mountains include peaks reaching over 3,000 m and are interspersed with lower hills and rocky outcrops, which create natural districts and influence settlement patterns. The region's terrain has historically shaped trade routes and military movements due to the strategic passes and rugged corridors.
Nangarhar's vegetation varies from fertile riverine lands to arid plains and rocky mountain slopes. In the Jalalabad valley and along irrigated riverbanks, crops such as wheat, rice,pomegranate,grapes, and vegetables are cultivated extensively. Orchards and gardens flourish in irrigated zones, supporting local diets and commerce. Semi-arid and mountainous areas are covered by shrubs, grasses, and scattered trees likeacacia andtamarisk.[31] Wildlife includes foxes, jackals, wild goats, and various hare, amphibia, and lizard species, while birds such as partridges, doves, and migratory waterfowl inhabit rivers, wetlands, and cultivated fields.[32][33][34] The diverse habitats created by valleys, rivers, and hills allow for localized biodiversity, though human activity and limited water resources affect the abundance of wildlife.[35]
Nangarhar experiences a variety of climate types, with most areas classified ashot semi-arid climate (BSh) andhot desert climate (BWh), while smaller regions exhibithot-summer Mediterranean (Csa), cold and warmhumid continental climate (Dsa, Dsb),cold semi-arid climate (BSk), andwarm-summer Mediterranean (Csb) climates.[36] Summers in valleys often exceed 40 °C, while mountainous regions remain cooler. Winter temperatures in low-lying areas generally range from 5–15 °C. Annual rainfall is low, averaging 200–400 mm, mostly in winter and early spring, with seasonal snow in the highlands contributing to river flow and irrigation. Irrigation and river valleys create localized microclimates supporting agriculture. Nangarhar is also prone to floods and periodic droughts, which periodically affect agriculture and settlements.[37][38]
Local elders gather at a local police station during a traditionaljirga atHesarak, Nangarhar
Local governance in Nangarhar has historically been shaped by its position as eastern Afghanistan's primary gateway to Pakistan, its dense population, and the strong political influence of powerful Pashtun tribes such as the Shinwari, Mohmand, and Khogyani. Unlike many more remote provinces, Nangarhar has long been closely integrated into national trade, border administration, and security policy due to the strategic importance of theKhyber Pass and theTorkham border crossing.[39]
Throughout the 20th century, governance in Nangarhar was nominally exercised through governors appointed by Kabul.[40] However, in practice, local tribalkhans,maliks and other informal authorities often held significant influence, and administration was shaped by Jalalabad's historical role as a trade and border city.[41][42]
During the period following the Soviet withdrawal and throughout the Afghan civil wars, governance fragmented among mujahideen factions and tribal power holders, while parts of Achin, Kot, and Deh Bala intermittently fell outside effective provincial control. After 2001, the Islamic Republic re-established provincial institutions, but governance remained heavily affected by corruption, contested land ownership, drug trafficking routes, and the presence of militant groups including the Taliban andIS-K.[43][44][18]
Since theFall of Kabul, governance in Nangarhar has been fully integrated into the administrative system of theIslamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The governor and all district officials are appointed directly by Taliban leadership. Civil administration, courts, customs revenue at Torkham, and border enforcement are now managed under Taliban structures.[45] Despite centralized control, informal influence by tribal elders, religious authorities, and cross-border commercial networks remains significant, especially in rural districts.[18]
Nangarhar is divided into 22 districts, each led by a district chief responsible for local administration and coordination with the provincial government.[3] The provincial capital,Jalalabad, serves as the political, economic, and administrative hub of the province. Other notable districts includeBehsud,Hesarak,Achin, andRodat.
^Note: "Predominantely" or "dominated" is interpreted as 99%, "majority" as 70%, "mixed" as 1/(number of ethnicities), "minority" as 30% and "few" or "some" as 1%.
Nangarhar's security situation is heavily influenced by its strategic location along theDurand Line withPakistan and by complex tribal dynamics.[71] During the era of theIslamic Republic of Afghanistan, the province was a key site for counter‑insurgency operations by Afghan and international forces.[71] Since the 2021 Taliban takeover, the province is formally under Taliban control, who maintain order particularly in urban centers such as Jalalabad, while many rural districts continue to experience sporadic insurgent activity, criminal networks, and localized conflict.[72][73] Meanwhile, informal local power actors, such as tribal elders, religious leaders, and community councils, continue to play a role in mediating disputes and influencing local law enforcement and governance.[74]
Nangarhar is one of eastern Afghanistan's most economically significant provinces due to its fertile river valleys, direct access toPakistan through theTorkham border crossing, and its role as a regional commercial hub centered onJalalabad.[75] The provincial economy is based on a combination ofagriculture, cross-bordertrade, small-scaleindustry, andtransport services, with strong economic linkages to the Pakistani economy.[76]
Livestock breeding in Nangarhar commonly includescattle,sheep andgoats, supplying both subsistence needs and markets.[4] Until recently, parts of southern and mountainous Nangarhar were affected byopium‑poppy cultivation, but after a 2022 ban by the Taliban, poppy farming dropped sharply, and many farmers reportedly shifted toward legal crops.[83][84]
Nangarhar possesses a wide range of exploitablemineral resources, although most extraction remains small-scale or semi-industrial. The province is particularly known for deposits ofjasper,gypsum,marble,limestone,coal, andnephrite,[85] as well as variousgemstones and rare-metal bearingpegmatite minerals, which includeberyllium-,lithium-,tantalum-, andtourmaline-bearing formations.[86][87] These mineral deposits are mainly concentrated in the mountainous districts of eastern and southern Nangarhar, especially in areas such asAchin, Deh Bala, andPachir wa Agam.[88] Marble and limestone extraction support the localconstruction industry and cross-border export toPakistan.Talc andchromite have historically played an important role in regional mineral trade networks.[88]
Industrial activity is concentrated aroundJalalabad, where food processing,flour milling,edible oil production,brick kilns,plastic manufacturing,textile workshops, andbeverage bottling facilities operate.[89] The province also hosts one of Afghanistan's largest industrial zones, theNangarhar Industrial Park, which accommodates dozens of medium-sized manufacturing and processing enterprises. However, unstableelectricity supply, limited access tocapital, and weak transport logistics continue to restrict large-scale industrial development.[90][91]
Trade is the most dynamic sector of Nangarhar's economy due to the strategic importance of theTorkham border crossing, which connects Afghanistan to Pakistan'sKhyber Pakhtunkhwa.[92] A significant share of Afghanistan'simports, includingfuel,food products,construction materials,pharmaceutical drugs, andconsumer goods, passes through Nangarhar.[93]Jalalabad functions as a majorwholesale and redistribution center for eastern and northeastern Afghanistan. Informal cross-border trade andsmuggling have historically played a major economic role, particularly in fuel,electronics, andagricultural commodities.Customs revenue from Torkham represents one of the most important income sources for both provincial and central authorities under successive Afghan governments.[94]
Nangarhar's irrigation system is primarily based on water from theKabul River via theDarunta Dam, which provides irrigation water and hydroelectric power for Jalalabad and surrounding areas.[95][96] The province historically supported up to 39,000 ha under formal irrigation schemes.[97][98] In practice, however, electricity supply remains unreliable, as many households and businesses are dependent on generators or alternative means. It was especially reported when power from the dam proved insufficient.[99] While canal networks distribute water to agricultural zones, recurring maintenance problems, siltation and drought or flood‑induced damage continue to challenge irrigation and agricultural productivity in rural districts.[37][38]
Nangarhar is often cited for its scenic valleys, mild winter climate and river landscapes aroundJalalabad and theDarunta Dam. Historically, Jalalabad has long-served as a winter retreat for the Kabul elite.[14][100] Domestic tourism, especially during holidays like Eid, has reportedly increased, with many Afghans visiting green areas, historical sites and mountainous districts such asSpin Ghar.[101][102][103] However, international tourism remains minimal, and formal accommodation or tourism‑infrastructure is still largely underdeveloped.[104]
Antennae to receive TV channels on a roof in Jalalabad
Telecommunications infrastructure in parts of Nangarhar, especially around urban areas like Jalalabad, has traditionally included mobile‑network coverage and internet access, enabling communication and media consumption.[105] However, since 2021 the situation has become unstable, as fibre‑optic and WiFi internet access has been repeatedly shut down by the government, and media‑licenses for several outlets in Nangarhar have been revoked, restricting independent media and broadcasting.[106][107]
Nangarhar's transportation network is anchored by theKabul–Jalalabad Road, which leads to theTorkham border crossing, Afghanistan's primary corridor to Pakistan.[108] This route carries the bulk of the transit andfreight traffic of eastern Afghanistan.[109][110] Secondary roads, improved in recent years with international assistance, now connect Jalalabad with many districts, facilitating transport of agricultural products and goods.[111] However, despite these developments, many rural roads remain in fragile condition and prone to disruption by floods or heavy rains, which periodically interrupts transport and trade flows.[112]
As of 2023, Nangarhar has an estimated population of approximately 1.8 million people, distributed across urban centers, towns, and rural villages.[46] The provincial capitalJalalabad contains the largest share of the urban population, followed by district centers such asKama andSurkh Rod. The majority of the population lives in rural areas, where livelihoods depend largely onagriculture and cross-border trade. Poverty remains widespread, particularly in mountainous districts, with amultidimensional poverty index of 0.266 and 23.0% of the population living insevere poverty as of 2023.[113] Many households rely on small-scale farming, casual labor, or remittances. Rapid population growth, seasonal displacement, and return migration have placed additional strain on housing, infrastructure, and public services.[114]
The population of Nangarhar is ethnically diverse but overwhelminglyPashtun, who make up the clear majority of the province's inhabitants.[3][71] Prominent Pashtun tribal confederations include bothGhilzai andDurrani, alongside numerous smaller tribal groupings. Significant minorities include thePashai, especially in eastern and northeastern mountain districts, as well as smaller communities ofTajiks,Arabs, and other groups.[71]Pashto is the dominant language and serves as the mainlingua franca of the province, whilePashayi is widely spoken in eastern highland districts.[115]Dari is used in administration, education, and interprovincial communication. Many residents are bilingual or multilingual due to long-standing trade and migration links with theKabul Valley andKhyber Pass region. The population is overwhelminglySunni Muslim.[3] Small minority communities of other religious groups formerly existed in urban areas, but their presence has declined significantly due to decades of conflict and emigration. Religious life remains closely tied to localmosques,madrasas, and tribal traditions.[3]
Nangarhar University is located in the provincial capital,Jalalabad, and is one of the largest public universities in eastern Afghanistan. It provides higher education to several thousand students in fields such as medicine, agriculture, engineering, economics, and Islamic studies. Primary and secondary education is provided through a network of government and community-basedschools distributed across the province.[116] Educational access varies widely between urban and rural districts, with mountainous areas facing shortages of school buildings, trained teachers, and learning materials. Literacy rates remain low compared to national and regional averages, particularly among women, with the most recent estimates from 2011 indicating an overall literacy rate of 31% and an overall net enrolment rate for school-age children of approximately 51%.[117]
Since 2021, educational policy has been reshaped under theTaliban administration.[118] While male education continues across all levels, female access tosecondary education andhigher education has been severely restricted.[119] At the same time, the number of religiousmadrasas has expanded throughout the province.[120]NGO-supported literacy and vocational programs operate in limited form, mainly focusing on basic skills and humanitarian education.[121][122]
Healthcare services in Nangarhar are concentrated primarily inJalalabad, where the main provincial and regional hospitals are located, including theNangarhar Regional Hospital. In addition to public facilities, a number of private clinics and pharmacies operate in urban districts.[123] Rural populations often depend on small health posts or must travel long distances for treatment.[124] Major public health challenges includematernal andinfant mortality,malnutrition, limited access toclean drinking water, and outbreaks ofinfectious diseases, with the most recent available estimates from 2011 indicating that 8% of households had access to clean drinking water and 60% of births were attended by a skilled birth attendant.[117] Healthcare delivery is supported byNGOs and international humanitarian organizations, which provide vaccinations, emergency treatment, and basic medical services, especially in underserved districts.[125] Ongoing economic difficulties, medical staff shortages, and restricted funding continue to challenge the long-term development of the provincial health system.[126]
Traditional music and dance in Nangarhar are closely linked to easternPashtun tribal culture. Theattan is the most widely performed communal dance, traditionally featured at weddings and tribal celebrations, and often accompanied by instruments such as thedhol andrubab.[127][128] Folk songs and performances commonly reflectPashtun cultural themes, including community life, seasonal events, and tribal identity.[129] Public performances of music and dance have largely disappeared under Taliban rule, and many artists report that venues are closed or fear reprisals.[130]
In Nangarhar, as in much of Pashtun regions of Afghanistan, traditional clothing remains common.[131] Men typically wear aperahan o tunban, often paired with aturban,pakol, orshawl.[132] Women often wear long, loose dresses over wide trousers, sometimes with colourful embroidery and head scarves. For special occasions like weddings or festivals, more ornate outfits are used, with decorative embroidery and bright fabrics.[133]
Nangarhar's cuisine is shaped by its fertile river valleys and agricultural production.Wheat bread,rice,lamb, anddairy products form the basis of daily meals.[134][135] Signature dishes includeqabeli palaw,qormas with vegetables or meat, grilledkababs, and local specialties based on fish andkarahi dishes.[136][137] Tea, especiallygreen tea, is consumed throughout the day. Seasonal fruits such aspomegranates,apples, andgrapes complement meals and are commonly served during festive occasions.[4][138]
Nangarhar's traditional architecture adapts to its river valley plains and surrounding hills. Homes are built frommudbrick, stone, and timber, often with flat or gently sloped roofs.[139] Courtyards are common, allowing for family gatherings and livestock shelter. Villages often cluster along rivers or roads for access and defense.Mosques serve as religious and social centers.[140] Local crafts includecarpet weaving,embroidery, wood carving, pottery, and traditional jewelry.[141] Oral literature, includingPashto poetry, epic storytelling, and folk tales, remains central, with elders and local poets preserving histories and tribal genealogies through recitations during social and religious events.[142]
Radio remains an important source of information for many people in rural areas of Nangarhar, while access to television and mobile internet tends to be stronger in urban centers such as Jalalabad and other major towns, although overall media freedom and content diversity have been heavily restricted since 2021 under Taliban rule.[143][144] Restrictions include the suspension of broadcast licenses for local stations and new directives limiting content that can be aired, which has led to reduced programming and increased self-censorship by journalists and outlets.[145]
Cultural celebrations such asEid al-Fitr andEid al-Adha, as well as life-cycle events like weddings and other family gatherings, have traditionally played a central role in communal life across Afghanistan, bringing together relatives and neighbours for shared meals, rituals, and social interaction. Although public forms of entertainment and music have been curtailed by the current authorities, many families continue to celebrate these events within private settings, and some cultural practices persist informally despite official restrictions.[146]
Nangarhar contains a number of cultural and natural points of interest. InJalalabad, historicbazaars, mosques, and older residential quarters illustrate the city's long-established urban landscape, with notable landmarks like themausoleum of Amanullah Khan, theBahraabadstupa, and theLas Pa Las Babashrine.[147][148] The province also features additional religious shrines and Sufi sites, as well as natural areas such as theSardeh Band reservoir, theKhyber Pass and its surrounding foothills, and the vicinity of theSpin Ghar mountain range, theDarunta Dam and theKabul River, which are used for local visits and seasonal activities.[149] Archaeological surveys have documented previously unrecorded historical sites across the province, including ancient structural remains and settlement traces dating to the pre-Islamic andKushan periods.[147][148]
The Sherzai Cricket Stadium under construction in June 2011
In recent decades,cricket has become the most popular modern sports in Nangarhar, especially among youth, andJalalabad is widely viewed as the center of Afghan cricket development.[150][151] Many prominentnational team players, includingRashid Khan, have roots in the province.[150] In national cricket competitions such as theShpageeza Cricket League, Nangarhar is represented by theSpeenghar Tigers franchise, which covers the eastern provinces of the country. TheGhazi Amanullah International Cricket Stadium, located inGhazi Amanullah Town near Jalalabad, was Afghanistan's first international-standard cricket stadium, with a seating capacity of 14,000, making it the largest stadium in the country at the time of its inauguration.[152] Subsequently, theNajeeb Tarakai Cricket Ground was constructed in Jalalabad, making Nangarhar the first province to feature two cricket stadiums.[153][154]
Football is also widely played in Nangarhar. During the period of theIslamic Republic, the province was represented in national competitions byDe Spin Ghar Bazan FC, which served as the regional team for Nangarhar alongsideLaghman,Kapisa,Kunar, andNuristan within theAfghan Premier League. Other modern sports practiced in the province includevolleyball andbasketball, which are commonly played due to minimal equipment requirements. Private gyms in urban areas provide facilities forboxing,taekwondo, and general fitness training. Traditional sports continue to play a role in cultural life, particularly local forms of wrestling and horse riding, which are closely associated with community festivals, tribal prestige, and social gatherings.[155]
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